IN  MEMOMAM, 
John  Swett 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 


OR 


THAT    PART   OP   THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF  EDUCATION    WHICH 

TREATS  OF  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  SEVERAL  BRANCHES 

OF  KNOWLEDGE  AND  THE  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

THEM  ACCORDING  TO  THAT  NATURE. 


BY 

JAMES  PYLE  WICKERSHAM,  LL.D., 

STATE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  LATE  PRIN 
CIPAL  OP  THE  PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  AND  AUTHOR 
OF  "SCHOOL  ECONOMY,"  ETC. 


"The  method  of  nature  is  the  archetype  of  all  methods." — MAUCEL. 

"Man  cannot  propose  a  higher  and  holier  object  for  his  study,  than  education, 
uid  all  that  appertains  to  education." — COUSIN'S  PLATO. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.   B.    LIPPINCOTT    &   CO. 


Kuterod,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866.  hv 
JAMES  PYLE  WICKERSHAM, 

In  tha  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the   Eastern 
District  of  Pennsylvania. 


a  Sfylbuty  nf 

To  the  men  and  women  now  constituting  the  Teachers 

Profession  in  America,  characterized  as  they  are 

by  learning,  worth,  and  devotion  to  a  work 

among  the  most  noble  that  human  effort 

ever  aspired   to   accomplish  —  the 

right   education   of  the  whole 

people  of  the  nation  —  who 

for  their   heavy   labors 

receive  small  recom 

pense  save  the  con 

sciousness  of 

doing  good  , 


desire  it  has  been  to  be  worthy  of  a  place  as  a 

co-worker  among  them,  whose  hope  it  is  to 

aid  in  elevating  and  dignifying  the  Pro 

fession  to  which  he  and  they  belong, 

and  u  hose  reward  it  will  be  to 

have  secured  their  approval 

of  his  work,  begs  leave 

to  dedicate  this 

book. 


54! 7 25 


PREFACE. 


THE  author  of  this  volume  published,  about  a  year 
ago,  a  book  entitled  "  School  Economy."  In  the  Pre 
face  to  it,  the  statement  was  made  that  other  volumes 
were  contemplated,  but  that  their  publication  depended 
very  much  upon  the  reception  of  the  one  then  offered 
to  the  Profession  and  the  public.  The  commendations 
of  that  book  were  so  numerous  and  hearty,  and  its  sale 
so  rapid,  that  the  obligation  was  soon  imposed  upon 
the  author  of  redeeming  his  implied  promise,  by  print 
ing  the  volume  on  "  Methods  of  Instruction,"  which 
was  then  announced  as  being  almost  ready  for  tha 
Press. 

The  present  work,  like  the  former  one,  is  based  upon 
lectures  delivered  to  classes  of  students  preparing  them' 
selves  for  teachers,  but  much  additional  matter  is  intro- 
duced  here,  that  was  not  contained  in  the  original 
lectures,  for  the  purpose  of  rounding  out  the  whole 
into  a  more  perfect  system,  and  making  the  book  more 

acceptable  to  all  classes  of  teachers.     As  it  now  stands 
!•  (Y) 


VI  PREFACE. 

it  is  hoped  thai  it  will  be  found  to  embody  principle8 
well  worthy  the  attention  of  the  Philosopher  as  well 
as  of  the  Educator,  and  that  its  merit  may  be  such  as 
to  make  it  a  standard  work  in  the  profession  whoso 
interests  mainly  it  is  designed  to  serve. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  word  TEACHING  is  used 
to  designate  all  that  belongs  to  the  profession,  whose 
aim  it  is  to  educate  mankind.  The  words  Law  and 
Medicine  have  a  similar  relation  to  those  professions 
whose  objects  it  is,  respectively,  to  preserve  social 
order,  and  to  cure  the  sick.  Pedagogy,  is  the  term 
generally  employed  by  the  Germans  to  express  what  I 
now  call  Teaching,  but  this  word  has  an  unpleasant 
association  in  this  country,  which  unfits  it  for  that  pur- 
pose.  Teaching  was  divided  in  the  Preface  to  the 
"  School  Economy,"  into  four  divisions,  viz. :  School 
Economy,  which  treats  of  the  preparation  for,  and  the 
organization  of,  the  school,  and  the  conditions  of  its 
efficient  working;  Methods  of  Instruction,  which  treats 
of  the  nature  of  knowledge,  and  the  methods  of  im 
parting  it;  Methods  of  Culture,  which  treats  of  the 
nature  of  man,  and  the  methods  of  educing  from  it  all 
possible  perfection ;  and  the  History  of  Education.  To 
the  matter  composing  the  first  three  divisions  I  have 
sometimes  thought  shorter,  but,  perhaps,  not  more 
expressive,  names  might  be  applied,  as  follows :  SCHO 
LASTICS,  instead  of  School  Economy;  DIDACTICS,  instead 
of  Methods  of  Instruction  ;  and  HUMAMJCS,  instead  of 
Methods  of  Culture.  The  first  is,  perhaps  oty- 


PREFACE.  Vll 

because  it  has  already  been  appropriated,  though  not 
much  used ;  the  second  is  very  expressive,  and  is  now 
applied  somewhat  indefinitely  to  Teaching  in  general ', 
and  the  third,  in  a  slightly  different  form,  has  associa 
tions  of  long  standing,  which  render  it  a  fit  term  to 
express  the  object-matter  proposed  to  be  embraced  by 
Methods  of  Culture.  Throughout  this  work,  however, 
the  forms  of  expression  first  chosen  will  continue  to 
be  used. 

The  labor  expended  in  the  preparation  of  this  book 
was  very  great.  It  formed  a  daily  subject  of  thought 
for  the  past  ten  years,  and  much  of  it  was  written  over 
three  or  four  times.  This  is  hardly  the  place  to  confess 
how  often  the  task  was  about  to  be  abandoned  from  the 
disproportion  felt  to  exist  between  its  magnitude  and 
the  limited  powers  that  could  be  summoned  to  execute 
it ;  but  it  was  as  often  resumed,  and  is  now  completed 
— completed,  but  not  perfected,  for  it  is  not  presumed 
that  nothing  erroneous  or  imperfect  will  be  found  in 
the  work.  It  would  have  been  easy  to  fill  five  hundred 
pages  with  matter  concerning  the  methods  of  teaching 
the  several  branches  of  knowledge  considered  independ 
ently  ;  but  in  that  case  the  book  would  have  been  a 
mere  collection  of  fragments,  and  not  at  all  a  scientific 
treatise.  It  might,  indeed,  have  been  more  popular, 
but  ii  would  have  been  unfaithful  to  the  great  theme 
discussed  ;  so  at  the  risk  of  losing  readers,  patient  effort 
was  made  to  grapple  with  the  subject  in  its  broadest 
relations.  Great  difficulty  was  met  in  condensing  the 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

materials.  It  would  have  been  much  easier  to  write 
several  volumes  on  the  subject  than  one.  The  thinking 
reader  will  appro*,  iate  this  labor. 

Criticism  is  anticipated  from  those  who  would  mea 
sure  all  knowledge  by  the  standard  of  utility,  or  confine 
it  to  the  few  branches  which  seem  to  impart  most  skill 
in  transacting  the  world's  affairs,  but  this  will  be  borne 
with  patience,  if  what  is  written  shall  secure  the  appro 
bation  of  those  who  see  in  education  the  means  of 
developing  all  the  powers  of  the  human  soul,  and  fur 
nishing  it  with  that  instruction  which  is  not  only  pro 
fitable  on  earth,  but  which  leads  up  towards  the  world 
of  light  and  love. 

Teachers  of  the  most  limited  scholarship  will  find 
much  matter  in  the  book  that  they  can  readily  make 
use  of  in  the  every  day  work  of  their  schools;  but  some 
such  teachers  will  likely  complain  that  they  meet  with 
things  which  they  cannot  understand.  This,  perhaps, 
will  not  be  the  fault  of  the  book.  The  doctrine  of 
education  cannot  be  discussed  as  a  Philosophy  without 
using  philosophical  principles  and  philosophical  lan 
guage.  Works  on  Law  and  Medicine  rise  to  the  level 
of  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat,  and  lift  the  earnest 
student  up  with  them.  Teachers  must  adopt  a  higher 
standard  of  learning.  They  must  acquaint  themselves 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  Teaching.  They 
must  learn  to  think.  And,  besides,  this  book  was  not 
written  for  the  babes  of  the  profession,  but  for  the  men 
— not  for  those  who  are  satisfied  to  tramp  forever  the 


PREFACE.  iX 

tread-mill  of  roatino  and  get  no  farther  and  rise  no 
higher,  but  for  those  who  aspire  to  gain  broader  and 
clearer  views  of  the  Philosophy  of  Education  and  to 
guide  the  work  of  teaching  by  their  light.  Teaching, 
when  rightly  done,  is  not  a  mere  process  of  imitation  or 
a  piece  of  guess-work.  Its  rules  and  precepts  are  not 
even  the  generalizations  of  successful  practice,  but  they 
are  founded  upon  the  universal  and  necessary  laws 
which  condition  matter  and  govern  mind. 

As  a  preparation  for  the  successful  study  of  this 
book,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  several  bran 
ches  of  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  teaching  which 
it  treats;  and  also  to  be  versed  in  the  sciences  which 
directly  appertain  to  mind — the  Psychological  Sciences. 
In  the  broadest  sense  it  requires  the  whole  of  Science 
to  constitute  the  basis  upon  which  Teaching  must 
rest.  The  solution  of  the  problem  of  man  necessitates 
the  solution  of  the  problem  of  nature,  for  to  under 
stand  him  all  else  must  be  understood.  And  yet  this 
conception  is  so  far  above  the  practice  of  the  profes 
sion,  so  much  beyond  the  reach  of  many  who  are  called 
good  teachers  that  I  scarcely  venture  to  present  it. 
When  I  think  of  the  low  ends  we  aim  at  in  education, 
and  the  unworthy  means  and  imperfect  methods  we 
use  to  accomplish  them,  I  tremble  to  think  we  are 
teaching  and  know  so  little.  God,  forgive  us  if  we 
mar  thy  noblest  work.  We  are  ignorant,  and  would 
be  humble.  Thou  alone  canst  know  the  difficulties 
that  surround  our  task. 


X  PREFACE. 

The  plan  of  this  book  was  formed  during  the  year 
1855.  To  fill  out  the  plan  much  reading  as  well  as 
much  thinking  has  been  done;  but  to  tell  to-day  what 
was  obtained  by  the  first  process  and  what  by  the 
second  is  an  impossibility.  Wishing  to  do  justice  to 
everybody,  no  claim  that  may  be  fairly  made  to  any 
idea  in  it  will  be  disputed;  and  it  is  hoped  that  some 
thing  may  be  left  even  when  all  claims  are  satisfied. 
Nothing,  however,  has  been  taken  from  others  and 
used  without  digestion.  All  the  facts  and  principles 
found  in  the  book,  come  whence  they  may,  have  been 
fused  into  a  common  whole.  This  whole  —  this  collect 
ing  and  uniting  of  the  scattered  fragments  of  thought 
concerning  education  —  this  system,  is  what  the  author 
asks  credit  for,  if  credit  be  deemed  his  due. 

The  question  is  a  disputed  one  as  to  whether  Teach 
ing  is  a  science  or  an  art.  The  settlement  of  this 
question  depends  wholly  upon  the  definitions  of  sci 
ence  and  art.  Teaching  seeks  an  end  without  itself, 
and  this  is  a  characteristic  of  art.  It  comprehends 
many  scientific  principles  which  admit  systematic  ar 
rangement,  and  this  is  a  characteristic  of  science.  It 
applies  those  principles  in  the  form  of  rules  or  precepts 
in  the  accomplishment  of  its  ends,  and  this  again  ex 
hibits  its  relationship  to  the  arts.  All  the  principles 
of  Teaching  come  to  it  second-hand.  They  are  first 
found  in  the  material  or  mental  sciences,  and  are  used 
in  Teaching  to  furnish  a  ground  for  its  methods  of  pro 
cedure.  But  as  a  body  of  truths  they  are  among  tho 


PREFACE.  XI 

broadest  and  noblest  that  the  human  mind  can  contem 
plate,  and  consequently  place  Teaching  side  by  side, 
as  the  peer  of  the  proudest  professions  known  to  men 
Teaching  has  the  same  claims  to  be  considered  a  science 
as   Jurisprudence,  Medicine,  or  practical   Ethics;    for 
all  these  are  constructed  in  a  manner  precisely  like 
Teaching.     All  of  them  borrow  their  principles,  and 
all  of  them  use  these  principles  in  the  effort  to  attain 
their  respective  ends.   Perhaps,  as  Mill  following  Comte 
suggests,  "  There  ought  to  be  a  set  of  intermediate 
scientific  truths,  derived  from  the  higher  generalities 
of  science,  and  destined  to  serve  as  the  generalia,  or 
first  principles,  of  the  various  arts."     Some  such  gene 
ralia  relating  to  Teaching  are  given  in  this  book  under 
the  head  of  Conditioning  Principles.     These  and  other 
principles  like  them  constitute  the  claim  Teaching  has 
to  be  called  a  Science.     If  the  claim  is  not  well  founded 
with  respect  to  Teaching,  it  cannot  be  well  founded  with 
respect  to  any  other  profession.     I  am  quite  willing  te 
consider  Teaching  an  art,  but  it  is  an  art  based  upon 
scientific  principles  that  should  always  guide  its  prac 
tice.     Let  teachers  forever  discard  the  degrading  idea 
that  the  highest  and  holiest  work  in  which  men  can 
engage  on  earth,    the  right    education  of  the    human 
soul,  is   a   mere   mechanical  employment  that  can  be 
learned  by  imitation — is  a  thing  so  easy  that  no  special 
preparation  is  required  to  do  it.     Let  them  hold  to  the 
truth,  though  their  pearls  be  trampled  on  by  vulgar 
feet,  that  Teaching  lays  under  contribution  all  science 
and   all   art  in   working   out   the   grandest   end  that 


£U  PREFACE. 

human   conception   ever  realized  —  the  perfection  of 
the  race. 

With  grateful  thanks  for  the  kind  reception  accorded 
to  his  first  volume,  the  author  now  hopefully  trusts  his 
second  to  the  same  generous  hands. 

J.  P.  W. 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  January,  1865. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

TEACHERS   REQUIRE   SPECIAL   PREPARATION. 

First  Class  of  Reasons,  PAOI 

1.  The  teacher  must  understand  the  true  object  of  educa 

tion , 26 

2.  The   teacher    must    understand    that  upon  which   he 

operates 27 

8.  The  teacher  must  understand  that  with  which  he 

operates 28 

4.  The  teacher  must  understand  how  to  conduct  the 

operation 28 

6.  The  teacher  must  know  how  to  manage  and  govern  the 

school 30 

fcusond  Class  of  Reasons. 

1.  Special  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers  is  necessary 

to  constitute  Teaching  a  profession 30 

2.  Special  preparation  on  the  part  of  teachers  is  necessary 

to  make  Teaching  a  permanent  business 31 

3.  Efforts  for  the   special  preparation  of  teachers   have 

been  attended  with  satisfactory  results 32 

CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES. 

I    Principles  inferable  from  the  Nature  of  Mind 3? 

1.  The  intellectual  faculties  can  receive  culture  by  judi 
cious  exercise 37 

2  (xiii) 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAOS 

2.  The  human  intellect  embraces  a  number  of  distinct 
faculties  each  of  which  requires  a  different  kind  of 
culture 38 

8.  Human  beings  have  been  created  with  different  tastes 
and  talents  to  fit  them  for  performing  different 
duties  or  for  occupying  different  spheres  in  life 39 

4.  The  Perceptive  powers  are  stronger  and  more  active  in 
youth  than  the  other  intellectual  faculties  and  thus 
furnish  a  basis  for  the  superstructure  of  knowledge  40 

6.  Commencing  with  the  Perceptive  Powers,  the  various 
intellectual  faculties  increase  in  relative  strength  in 
the  following  order:  Memory,  Recollection,  Imagina 
tion,  Understanding,  Reason 41 

6.  The  human  mind  possesses  two  sources  of  knowledge, 

the  Senses  and  the  Reason,  the  products  of  which 
differ  in  kind 44 

7.  In  acquiring  knowledge,  the  mind  first  distinguishes  its 

objects  in  kind,  then  in  quantity,  and  afterwards  in 
their  relations 45 

8.  The   ratiocinative    faculty   in    elaborating    systems    of 

science,  proceeds  inductively  or  deductively,  analyti 
cally  or  synthetically 46 

9.  The  acquisitive  powers  of  the  mind  in  getting  knowledge 

operate  according  to  certain  laws  of  suggestion 48 

10.  The  reproductive  powers  of  the  mind  by  means  of  laws 

of  association  enable  it  to  recall  its  knowledge,  and 

to  hold  it  up  in  vivid  pictures  before  it 49 

11.  The  productive  powers  of  the  mind  enable  it  to  make 

new  discoveries  and  new  inventions 50 

12.  The  human   intellect    grows  only  by  its  own  inherent 

energies 51 

13.  The  acts  of  men  do  not  derive  their  moral  quality  from 

the  intellect 51 

14.  The  intellect  of  man  has  limits  which  no  extent  of  educa 

tion  can  enable  it  to  pass 52 

II.  Principles  inferable  from  the  Nature  of  Knowledge 64 

1.  Tho  several  branches  of  knowledge  can  be  made  to  fur 

nish  the  intellectual  faculties  with  exercise  proper 

in  kind  and  quantity 54 

2.  Educational  means  can  be  found  adapted  to  give  culture 

to  every  capability  of  mind 66 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAG* 

8.  No  God-constituted  difference  of  mental  constitution  is 
left  unprovided  for  in  the  wealth  of  means  which  the 
Creator  intended  to  be  used  for  the  purposes  of 
education 67 

4.  Nature  presents  to  the  inquirer,  first  the  concrete  and 
then  the  abstract;  first  things  and  then  words,  or 
signs  for  things ;  first  facts  and  phenomena  and 
then  laws  and  principles ;  first  wholes  and  then 
parts  and  collections  of  wholes ;  thus  indicating  to 
the  teacher  the  propriety  of  confining  his  elemen 
tary  instruction  mainly  to  lessons  on  objects  whose 
properties  can  be  directly  perceived,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  the  experience  of  the  young  as  extensive 
as  possible ...  59 

6.  Nature  opens  up  her  truth  in  a  certain  order,  and  that 

order  must  be  followed  in  investigation  and  study...  60 

6.  The  Empirical  and  the  Rational  Sciences  require  dif 
ferent  methods  of  instruction 62 

7  The  first  form  of  instruction  must  be  qualitative,  next 

quantitative,  and,  then,  a  comparison  of  relations...  64 

8.  As  conditioned   by  the    relations  of  the  object-matter 

of  knowledge,  methods  of  teaching  must  be  induc 
tive  or  deductive,  analytical  or  synthetical 66 

9.  The  object-matter  of  knowledge  as  it  exists  in  nature  is 

so  connected  and  arranged  as  to  facilitate  its  acqui 
sition 68 

10.  The  matter  of  knowledge  as  it  lies  in  the  memory  has 

connections  and  relations  which  increase  its  avail 
ability 69 

11.  New  discoveries  in  science  and  new  inventions  in  the 

arts  are  still  possible,  and  methods  of  instruction 
should  prompt  the  young  to  make  them 70 

12.  Nature  everywhere  courts  investigation  by  a  system  of 

attractions  which  enlist  the  attention,  and  induce 
increased  activity  in  the  powers  by  which  we  re 
member,  reflect,  reason,  and  philosophize,  and  there 
fore  methods  of  teaching  should  be  suggestive 72 

13.  The  study  of  science  does  not  in  itself  lead  to  virtue....     75 

14.  What  we  can   know  is  everywhere   bounded   by  what 

must  remain  unknown 76 


XVl  CONTENTS. 

MM 

BUILDING  THE   FOUNDATION. 

I.  The  Classification  of  Knowledge 80 

First  Class — the  Elements  of  Knowledge 83 

Second  Class — Language •  85 

Third  Class — the  Formal  Sciences 86 

Fourth  Class — the  Empirical  Sciences 8G 

Fifth  Class — the  Rational  Sciences 80 

Sixth  Class — the  Historical  Sciences 87 

Seventh  Class— the  Arts 87 

II.  The  Genesis  of  Knowledge 88 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  Language 88 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Formal  Sciences 90 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Empirical  Sciences...  93 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Rational  Sciences 96 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Historical  Sciences...  98 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Arts , 99 

Educational  generalizations 103 

III.  The  Order  of  Study 109 

Firs*.  Period — Infancy 110 

Second  Period—  Childhood 113 

Third  Period—  Youth 117 

Fourth  Period — Manhood 120 

CHAPTER  I. 

INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   ELEMENTS   OF   KNOWLEDGE. 

I,  Informal  Instruction  in  the  Elements  of  Knowledge 124 

1.  Children  should  be  allowed  ample  opportunities  for  ex 

ercising  their  Senses 124 

2.  Children  should  be  instructed  in  learning  to  talk 127 

3.  Children  should  have  their  appetite  for  knowledge  grati 

fied 130 

4.  Children    should  be  furnished   occasions   for  applying 

their  powers  of  knowing  what  is  true,  beautiful,  and 

good 135 

6.  Children  should  be  allowed  facilities  for  practice  in  the 

elements  of  the  Arts 138 


CONTENTS.  XV11 

I-AQB 

O.  Formal  Instruction  in  the  Elements  of  Knowledge HO 

1.  The  Design  of  Object  Lessons 141 

2.  The  Matter  of  Object  Lessons 144 

3.  The  Preparation  for  imparting  Object  Lessons 150 

4.  The  Method  of  conducting  Object  Lessons 154 

6,  The  Dangers   to  which  the   Object   Lesson   System  is 

exposed 156 


CHAPTER  II. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

I.  Instruction  in  our  Mother-Tongue 161 

Advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  Study  of  the  Eng 
lish  Language 165 

I.  LEARNING  TO  READ  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE 165 

THE  ALPHABET 165 

1.  The  A  B  C  Method. 168 

The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  with  a  Book....  168 

The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  with  Cards 169 

The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  with  a  Slate  or 

Blackboard 179 

The  Manner  of  teaching   the  Alphabet  with   Letter- 
Blocks 173 

2.  The  Word  Method 175 

Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  Pictures 175 

Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  Words 176 

Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  Letters 176 

PRONUNCIATION 179 

1.  The  Synthetic  Method. 179 

The  Alphabetic  Method 180 

The  Phonic  Method 182 

The  Phonetic  Method 187 

2.  The  Associative  Method 188 

3.  The  Eclectic  Method., 191 

ORTHOGRAPHY 195 

1.  The  Auricular  Mtthod. 196 

2.  The  Ocular  Method 197 

2* 


xviii  CONTENTS. 

PAOS 

Exercises  in  Spelling. 

Spelling  Exercises  for  Beginners 200 

Oral  Exercises  in  Spelling 201 

Method  of  using  Slates  in  a  Spelling  Recitation.. 202 

Method  of  using  the  Blackboard  in  a  Spelling  Recita 
tion 204 

False  Orthography  as  an  Exercise  in  Spelling 205 

Dictation  Exercises 205 

READING 208 

1.  Method  of  leaching  Reading  as  a  Vocal  Art 208 

Quantity,  including  Force,  Emphasis,  Slur,  Stress,  and 

Accent 210 

Compass,  including  Pitch  and  Inflection 214 

Movement,  including  Rate  and  Pause 216 

Quality 218 

2.  Method  of  teaching  Reading  as  a  Mental  Operation  .... 220 

Reading  as  related  to  the  Intellect 220 

Reading  as  related  to  the  Emotions 224 

3.  Method  of  teaching  Delivery 227 

Expression 227 

Posture 231 

Gesture 232 

II.  LEARNING  TO  UNDERSTAND  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE 234 

LEXICOLOGY 235 

1.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be   learned   by  direct  in 

tuition 236 

2.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  concrete  ex 

planations 237 

3.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  the  use  of 

simplified  expressions 238 

4.  The    meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  observing 

their  signification  as  used  in  sentences 239 

6.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  the  study  of 

foreign  languages 241 

6.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  an  acquaint 

ance  with  Etymology 241 

7.  The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  scientific  defi 

nitions 244 

GRAMMAR 245 

1.  Etymological  Exercises 247 

Nouns 248 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAOH 

Kinds  of  Nouns 248 

Properties  of  Nouns 249 

Verbs 249 

Kinds  of  Verbs 250 

Properties  of  Verbs 251 

Exercises  on  the  other  Parts  of  Speech 252 

2.    Grammar  as  a  Science 252 

The  Subject 253 

The  Predicate 254 

Kinds  of  Subjects 255 

Kinds  of  Predicates 255 

Adjective  Elements 256 

Adverbial  Elements 257 

General  Principles  relating  to  teaching  Grammar 258 

RHETORIC 259 

1.  Kinds  of  Discourse  260 

2.  Qualities   which    characterize   well    constructed  Dis 

course 2G1 

3.  Arrangement  and  Style  of  Discourse 262 

PHILOLOGY 265 

The  Nature  of  Philology 265 

III.  LEARNING  TO  COMPOSE  IN  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE 266 

1.  Elementary   Composition 267 

Classes  of  Exercises 268 

2.  Higher  Composition 270 

Composition  in  connection  with  Grammar  and  Rhetoric.  271 
Directions  for  conducting  Special  Exercises  in  Compo 
sition , 272 

II.  Instruction  in  the  Dead  Languages 275 

1.    Uses  of  the  Study  of  Latin  and  Greek 277 

The  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  assists  in  the  study  of 

our  own  language 277 

The  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  assists  in  understand 
ing  the  character  of  the  people  who  spoke  them  277 

The  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  assists  in  obtaining  a 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  Romaic  and 

Greeks 278 

The  study  of  Latin  and  GreeK  furnishes  very  gpod  in 
tellectual  discipline 278 


XA  CONTENTS. 

PASl 

The  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  furbishes  fine  aesthetic 

culture 279 

2.  Methods  of  teaching  Latin  and  Greek 280 

The  Method  that  commences  by  teaching  Pupils  to 

speak  Latin  and  Greek 282 

The  Method  that  commences  by  teaching  Pupils  to 

read  Latin  and  Greek 283 

The  Method  that  commences  by  teaching  the  Latin 

and  Greek  Grammar 285 

3.  General  directions  for  conducting  a  recitation  in  the  reading 

of  a  classical  author 287 

III.  Instruction  in  Living  Foreign  Languages 289 


CHAPTER  III. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

I.  The  Formal  Sciences  in  General 295 

1.  Definitions  and  Axioms  296 

2.  Deductions  and  Demonstrations 299 

3.  Applications 302 

II.  Mathematics 303 

1.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  themselves 304 

2.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  their  objective 

Relations 305 

3.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  their  Effects  upon 

the  Mind 306 

ARITHMETIC 312 

The  Ends  for  which  Arithmetic  is  studied 313 

The  Conditions  necessary  to  the  Attainment  of  these 

Ends 314 

1.  Exercises  in  counting 315 

2.  Exercises  in  adding,   subtracting,   multiplying,    and 

dividing  orally 316 

3.  Exercises  in  combining  these  Processes 316 

4.  Exercises   in  learning  the  written  Symbols  for  Num 

bers 316 

6.  Exercises  in  Numeration  and  Notation....  .  316 


CONTENTS. 

rioi 

6.  Exercises   in  Addition,    Subtraction,  Multiplication, 

and  Division 819 

7.  Exercises  in  the  Solution  of  practical  Examples  in 

volving  the  four  Fundamental  Rules 321 

8.  Exercises  in  imparting  the  Idea  of  a  Fraction 321 

9.  Exercises   in    adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,   and 

dividing  Fractions  orally 322 

10.  Exercises  in  teaching  Fractional  Expressions 323 

11.  Exercises    in  the  Addition,  Subtraction,    Multiplica 

tion,  and  Division  of  Fractions,  and  their  Ap 
plications 323 

12.  Exercises  in  Decimal  Fractions 323 

13.  Exercises  in  Compound  Numbers 324 

14.  Exercises  in  Proportion,  and  Involution  and  Evolu 

tion 325 

16.  Exercises  in  Arithmetical  Applications 325 

ALGEBRA 326 

Algebraic  Symbols ...  328 

The  Algebraic  Idea 328 

Adding,  Subtracting,  Multiplying,  and  dividing  Alge 
braic  Quantities 329 

Algebraic  Equations 329 

GEOMETRY 331 

Geometry  for  young  Children 332 

Geometrical  Demonstrations 334 

HI,  Logic 336 

1.  The  Utility  of  Logic  as  a  Study 336 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  in  itself 337 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  on  account  of  its  objective  re 
lations  837 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  because  it  disciplines  the  Un 
derstanding 837 

2.  Methods  of  Teaching  Logic 338 

Its  definitions 338 

Its  Deductions  and  Demonstrations 339 

Its  Applications 340 


ndi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IT. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   EMPIRICAL   SCIENCES. 

PAOl 

The  Uses  of  the  Empirical  Sciences 343 

I    The  Empirical  Sciences  in  General 346 

1.  The  Order  in  which  the  Empirical  Sciences  must  be  taught....   346 

The  Exhibition  of  Objects 346 

The  Pointing  out  of  particular  Facts 350 

The  Classification  of  Facts 353 

The  Derivation  of  Laws  controlling  Facts 354 

The  Bringing  of  new  Facts  under  ascertained  Laws...  357 
The  Recognition  of  universal  and  necessary  Principles 

on  which  all  Empirical  Laws  depend 358 

2.  The  Stages  of  Growth  exhibited  by  the  Empirical  Sciences....  360 

The  Poetic  Stnge 360 

The  Mystic  Stage 361 

The  Observational  Stage 362 

The  Classificatory  Stage 362 

The  Inductive  Stage 363 

The  Demonstrative  Stage 363 

The  Philosophic  Stage 365 

The  ^Esthetic  Stage 365 

The  Religious  Stage 360 

II.  Geography 367 

1.  Lessons  on  Objects  relating  to  Geography  which  Pupils 

can  observe  for  themselves 370 

2.  Lessons  on  similar  Objects  which  can  be  found  only  in 

Localities  distant  from  the  School 372 

3.  Lessons  on  the  Topography  of  the  Neighborhood  about 

the  School 373 

4.  Lessons  on  the  Explanations  of  common  Geographical 

Terms 376 

6.  Lessons  on  Detailed  Geography 379 

6.  Lessons  on  the  Classification  of  Geographical  Facts 385 

7.  Lessons  on  the  general  Laws  which  govern  Geographical 

Facts...  ..  887 


CONTENTS.  XX111 

CHAPTER  V. 

INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   RATIONAL  SCIENCES. 

PAOl 

I.  The  Nature  of  the  Rational  Sciences 389 

(I.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  as  Studies ....  394 

1.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  in  Themselves 394 

2.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  in  their  Relations 

to  other  Sciences 396 

3.  The  Value  of  Rational  Sciences  as  Means  of  Discipline.  397 

4.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  in  preparing  the 

Mind  to  accept  Revealed  Truth 398 

III.  The  Object-Matter  of  the  Rational  Sciences 399 

1.  Primary  Ideas 400 

2.  The  Criteria 403 

8.  Axiomatic  Truths 404 

4.  Deductions  and  Demonstrations 404 

5.  Applications 405 

IV.  The  Methods  of  Teaching  the  Rational  Sciences 406 

CHAPTER  YI. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

I.  The  Facts  of  History 414 

1.  The  Nature  of  the  Facts  of  History 416 

2.  The  peculiar  Difficulties  which  are  encountered  in  the 

Study  of  the  Facts  of  History 416 

3.  A  Course  of  Study  in  the  Facts  of  History 418 

4.  General  Suggestions  in  Regard  to  teaching  the  Facts  of 

History 421 

II.  The  Philosophy  of  History 426 

i.   The  Materialistic  Theory 428 

2    The  Spiritualistic  Theory 434 

3.   The  Theistit  Theory 442 

Method  in  teaching  the  Philosophy  of  History ,..   447 


JEXIV  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

WJOH 
L  Writing 461 

1.  Lessons  designed  to  leach  the  Conception  of  the  Forma  of  the 

Letters 452 

2.  Lessons   designed  to  give    Culture   to    the  Muscles  used  in 

Writing 455 

General  Suggestions  in  Regard  to  teaching  Writing....  456 

II.  Drawing 459 

1.  The  Abstract  Method 460 

Classes  of  Exercises 461 

2.  The  Concrete  Method 463 

Classes  of  Exercises 464 

8.  Shading,  Shadow,  and  Perspective 466 

III.  Vocal  Music 468 

Advantages  of  a  knowledge  of  Vocal  Music 468 

1.  The  Training  of  the  Vocal  Organs 471 

2.  The  Culture  of  the  Musical  Taste 477 

3.  Musical  Execution 479 

IV   The  Arts  in  General 480 

The  Nature  of  the  Arts 480 

1.  Instruction  in  the  Empirical  Arts 483 

Their  End 483 

Their  Means 486 

Their  Modes  of  Execution 488 

2.  Instruction  in  the  Rational  Arts 480 

Their  End 400 

Their  Means .  491 

Their  Modes  of  Execution 4f£ 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


INTRODUCTION. 

TEACHERS   REQUIRE   SPECIAL   PREPARATION. 

EDUCATION  as  a  science  comprehends  the  laws  of 
the  physical  and  mental  constitution  of  man,  and 
ita  relations  to  those  means  by  which  he  can  receive 
instruction  and  culture. 

Education  as  an  art  consists  in  selecting  and 
applying  the  means  used  for  imparting  instruction 
and  culture. 

Like  other  sciences,  education  can  be  studied; 
and,  as  in  other  arts,  acquired  skill  as  well  as  native 
talent  is  essential  to  success.  To  attain  a  knowledge 
of  the  science  and  proficiency  in  the  art  of  educa 
tion,  it  seems  evident  at  a  glance  that  special  prepa 
ration  is  necessary ;  but  as  this  position  has  been 
questioned,  it  is  considered  advisable  to  introduce 
the  following  work  by  some  considerations  in  its 
favor. 

Until  within  a  few  years,  the  common  schools  of 
this  country  were  taught  almost  exclusively  by 
persons  who  had  never  studied  professionally,  who, 
indeed,  were  generally  ignorant  that  any  preparation 
could  be  made  or  was  needed  to  enable  them  to  dis- 
ft  (25) 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

'charge; -their  duty  in  the  work  of  teaching.  Acade 
mies  and  colleges  were  not  much  better  off  in  this 

O 

respect;  for,  though  those  who  taught  in  them 
possessed  a  higher  degree  of  scholarship  than  the 
teachers  of  common  schools,  they  could  justly  claim 
little  more  professional  knowledge.  The  public 
seem  to  have  been  satisfied  with  this  kind  of  guess 
work  teaching.  Instructors  of  youth  were  allowed 
to  enter  upon  their  business  without  having  served 
even  that  period  of  apprenticeship  deemed  necessary 
for  those  who  make  hats  or  coats,  build  houses,  or 
shoe  horses.  They  were  everywhere  employed  with 
little  regard  to  their  literary,  and  less  to  their  pro 
fessional,  qualifications.  These  strictures  are  not  so 
applicable  to  the  present  condition  of  our  educational 
affairs  as  to  their  condition  a  few  years  ago ;  but 
notwithstanding  schools  for  the  trail :it»i>  of  teachers 
exist  in  most  of  the  Free  States,  and  other  means 
of  obtaining  knowledge  appertaining  to  teaching 
are  readily  accessible,  the  great  body  of  American 
schools  are  still  taught  by  persons  who  have  neither 
attended  Normal  Schools  nor  availed  themselves  of 
any  other  means  of  professional  improvement. 

That  special  preparation  is  necessary  for  teachers 
will  appear  from  the  considerations  which  follow: 

1.  THE  TEACHER  MUST  UNDERSTAND  THE  TRUE  OBJECT 
OF  EDUCATION.  —  The  lowest  idea  of  the  object  of  an 
education  embraces  only  its  advantages  in  acquiring 
that  knowledge  which  may  be  used  in  obtaining 
food,  clothing,  shelter,  protection,  or  in  carrying  on 
dome  kind  of  business.  An  idea  of  the  object  of 
education  to  this  extent  may  be  obtained,  perhaps, 


TEACHERS    REQUIRE   SPECIAL    PREPARATION.     27 

without  any  special  preparation,  it  may  result  from 
the  pressure  of  circumstances ;  but  education  has  an 
object  far  higher — an  object  that  is  not  limited  by 
the  mere  necessities  of  life.  The  great  end  of  edu 
cation  is  to  perfect  man,  physically,  mentally, 
morally,  religiously.  To  do  this  truth  must  be 
sought  and  loved  for  its  own  sake,  discipline  must 
be  valued  for  the  permanent  strength  it  imparts  to 
the  soul,  longings  for  the  high  and  the  holy  must  be 
made  to  spring  up  in  the  heart,  and  all  his  powers 
must  be  so  directed  as  to  attain  true  manhood  for 
man.  To  realize  all  this  even  in  thought  is  diffi 
cult,  to  realize  it  in  life  is  the  great  problem  which 
it  is  our  mission  on  earth  to  solve.  '  Ho  teacher  can 
work  effectively  without  a  well-defined  object,  and  no 
teacher  can  fully  conceive  the  highest  object  of  edu 
cation  without  long  and  careful  thought.  To  do  so, 
he  must  study  with  profound  attention  the  natu  e 
of  man  physically  and  mentally,  and  his  relations  to 
the  world  in  which  he  lives,  to  his  fellow-men,  and 
to  God. 

2.  THE  TEACHER  MUST  UNDERSTAND  THAT  UPON 
WHICH  HE  OPERATES.  —No  man  can  operate  skilfully 
upon  a  thing  the  nature  of  which  he  does  not  under 
stand.  The  farmer  must  understand  the  nature  of 
the  soil  he  cultivates;  the  blacksmith,  the  iron  he 
fashions  ;  the  potter,  the  clay  he  moulds,  before  either 
can  produce  the  most  advantageous  results.  The 
human  mind  is  certainly  not  less  easy  to  compre 
hend  than  are  soils,  iron,  or  clay,  that  the  teacher 
<;an  be  safely  relieved  from  the  special  professional 
laoor  and  study  required  of  farmers,  blacksmiths, 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

and  potters.  True,  like  them,  he  may  work  like  a 
machine,  or  work  ;/y  imitating  others,  but  such  blind 
methods  of  procedure,  unworthy  of  a  man  in  any 
avocation  of  life,  become  almost  criminal  when 
applied  to  the  education  of  human  beings  whose 
success  in  this  world  and  happiness  in  the  world 
to  come  he  may  jeopardize. 

3.  THE    TEACHER    MUST   UNDERSTAND    THAT  WITH 
WHICH  HE  OPERATES.  —  The  subject-matter  of  know 
ledge   comprehends  the  world   of  matter  and  the 
world  of  mind.     The  teacher  has  all  created  things 
from  which  to  select  means  to  be  used  in  the  work 
of  education.     No  man  can  make  a  judicious  selec 
tion  of  these  means,  and  be  prepared  to  present 
them  in  their  proper  order  and  proportion  without 
long  and    careful   study.      The    physician    spends 
much  time  and  thought  in  selecting  and  compound 
ing  his  medicines  for  the  body ;  it  is  riot  more  easy 
to  prepare  those  which  are  designed  to  be  adminis 
tered  to  the  mind.    Indeed,  the  selection  of  the  best 
course  of  study  for  a  child  is  a  problem  as  difficult 
as  any  with  which  the  human  mind  ever  tried  to 
grapple. 

4.  THE  TEACHER  MUST  UNDERSTAND  HOW  TO  CON 
DUCT  THE  OPERATION.  —  A  man  may  understand  the 
nature  of  the  thing  upon  which  he  intends  to  ope 
rate,  he  may  understand  the  means  with  which  the 
operation  is  to  be  performed,  and  still  want  a  know 
ledge  of  the  method  of  performing  the  operation. 
It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  train  and  instruct  children, 
and  he  can  have  no  intelligent  method  of  doing  this 


TEACHERS   REQUIRE    SPECIAL    PREPARATION.     29 

without  making  special  preparation.  He  can  no 
more  dispense  with  a  knowledge  of  the  method  of 
operating  than  can  the  man  who  navigates  a  ship  or 
builds  a  railroad.  If  methods  of  teaching  were 
merely  mechanical,  founded  upon  no  fixed  princi 
ples  (and  this  is  not  the  case),  they  could  not  be  suc 
cessfully  imitated  without  special  preparation;  for 
such  is  the  law  with  this  whole  class  of  operations. 
Besides,  facts  show  that  the  possession  of  knowledge 
does  not  imply  ability  to  impart  it.  It  is  self-evi 
dent  that  one  person  cannot  impart  to  another  what 
he  does  not  know  himself,  but  it  is  maintained  here 
that  good  scholars  do  not  always  succeed  in  becom 
ing  good  teachers.  Persons  who  have  been  well 
taught  must  have  learned  something  concerning  the 
methods  by  which  they  were  taught,  but  they  can 
not  intelligently  follow  these  methods  in  their  own 
practice  unless  they  have  carefully  studied  all  their 
details,  and  the  principles  upon  which  they  are 
founded.  Like  passengers  on  board  of  a  rail-car  or 
steamship,  pupils  may  make  swift  speed  toward 
their  journey's  end  without  noticing  the  way  along 
which  they  travel.  Methods  of  teaching  cannot  be 
well  studied  incidentally;  they  have  a  philosophy 
of  their  own,  and  should  be  made  a  definite  object 
of  study.  Skill  in  teaching,  it  is  true,  may  be 
acquired  by  school-room  experience  without  special 
instruction  beforehand;  but  this  is  always  done  at 
much  risk  to  the  teacher,  and  with  much  loss  to  the 
pupils.  ~No  man  has  more  need  to  profit  by  the 
experience  of  others  than  the  teacher,  for  no  man's 
mistakes  are  less  easily  remedied.  Teaching  talent 
may  seem  in  some  inborn,  but  this  is  true  also  io 
3* 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

respect  to  particular  individuals  in  all  professions, 
and  cannot  be  fairly  adduced  as  an  argument  against 
special  preparation  for  those  not  so  highly  favored 
by  nature. 

5,  THE  TEACHER  MUST  KNOW  now  TO  MANAGE  AND 
GOVERN  A  SCHOOL. — Discipline  gives  power.  One 
hundred  well-drilled  soldiers  are  worth  more  on  a 
battle-field  than  several  hundred  raw  recruits.  The 
captain  of  a  vessel,  the  superintendent  of  a  factory, 
the  commander  of  an  army,  must  acquire  professional 
skill  by  discipline ;  knowledge  of  the  principles  of 
school-management  and  school-government,  and 
skill  in  applying  them,  must  be  acquired  in  the  same 
way.  Progress  can  be  hoped  for  in  teaching  only 
as  teachers  make  use  of  the  experience  of  their 
predecessors  as  a  starting-post  for  their  own  inves 
tigations.  Where  wise  and  good  men  tell  us  how 
to  avoid  falling  into  errors,  it  is  great  folly  to  shut 
our  ears  to  their  advice.  Nor  can  natural  aptitude 
for  managing  and  governing  a  school  be  relied  upon, 
any  more  than  natural  aptitude  for  practicing  medi 
cine  or  law  can  be  relied  upon  in  those  professions. 

Some  additional  reasons  will  be  given  in  favor  of 
special  preparation  for  teachers.  They  belong  to  a 
different  class  from  the  preceding,  but  are  scarcely 
less  convincing: 

1.  SPECIAL  PREPARATION  ON  THE  PART  OF  TEACHERS 
IS  NECESSARY  TO  CONSTITUTE  TEACHING  A  PROFESSION. — 
If  scholarship  is  the  only  requisite  for  the  teacher, 
then  all  scholars  are  teachers,  or  may  properly 
become  such  whenever  the  prospects  of  miccess  iv 


TEACHERS   REQUIRE    SPECIAL    PREPARATION,     8l 

more  desirable  fields  of  effort  become  discouraging. 
Teaching  would  thus  be  a  kind  of  common  ground 
open  to  all,  and  admitting  the  limitation  of  no  pro 
fessional  lines.  As  ?,  consequence,  teachers  would 
attach  little  importance  to,  and  have  little  interest 
in,  their  work;  there  would  be  little  unity  of  effort 
among  them,  and  a  general  want  of  that  class  feel 
ing,  or  esprit  du  corps,  which  is  always  essential  to 
the  building  up  of  any  profession,  and  without 
which  teaching  can  neither  attain  the  rank  among 
the  professions  hoped  for  by  teachers,  nor  meet  in 
the  value  of  its  results  the  reasonable  expectations 
of  the  public. 

2.  SPECIAL  PREPARATION  ON  THE  PART  OF  TEACHERS 
IS  NECESSARY  TO  MAKE  TEACHING  A  PERMANENT  BUSI 
NESS.  —  At  present  no  other  kind  of  business  is  sub 
ject  to  so  many  changes  as  teaching.  It  is  certain 
that  of  those  who  have  charge  of  our  Common 
Schools  one  year,  not  more  than  two-thirds,  in 
some  places  not  more  than  one-half,  remain  to  take 
charge  of  them  the  succeeding  year.  Such  fre 
quent  changes  do  not  take  place  in  any  other  pur 
suit,  and  they  are  partly,  at  least,  accounted  for  in 
the  teachers'  profession  by  the  opinion  which  is 
held  by  many  that  "anybody"  can  teach.  The 
consequence  of  this  opinion  is  that  thousands  are 
etill  found  occupying  the  position  of  teacher  who 
never  intend  to  become  permanent  teachers,  but 
who  teach  merely  to  replenish  their  exhausted 
funds,  to  enjoy  opportunities  for  self-improvement, 
to  put  in  time  while  waiting  to  engage  in  some 
other  kind  of  business,  and  are  restless  under  the 


82  INTRODUCTION. 

irksome  necessity  that  confines  them  to  the  school 
room.  A  well-taught  school  by  any  of  these  classes 
of  persons  must  be  an  exception  to  the  rule.  They 
have  made  no  special  preparation  to  become 
teachers*  and  they  do  not  intend  that  either  their 
livelihood  or  their  reputation  shall  depend  upon 
their  success  as  such ;  and  actuated  by  none  of  the 
usual  motives  that  prompt  to  earnest  effort,  they 
cannot  be  expected  to  evince  much  interest  or 
exhibit  great  skill  in  teaching.  In  proportion  as 
men  expend  time,  labor,  and  money  in  fitting  them 
selves  for  a  particular  kind  of  business  will  be  their 
indisposition  to  abandon  it,  and  never  until  the 
public  recognize  the  truth  that  teachers  require 
special  preparation,  will  communities  be  freed  from 
the  evils  consequent  upon  the  frequent  change  of 
teachers,  and  the  profession  of  teaching  relieved  of 
the  horde  of  intruders  who  now  disgrace  it  and 
reduce  to  a  very  low  amount  the  remuneration  i* 
affords. 

3.  EFFORTS  FOR  THE  SPECIAL  PREPARATION  OF 
TEACHERS  HAVE  BEEN  ATTENDED  WITH  SATISFACTORY 
RESULTS. — Prussia  has  tried  the  experiment  of  train 
ing  teachers  upon  a  large  scale,  and  both  government 
and  people  think  it  has  been  successful.  Austria, 
France,  and  England  have  their  schools  for  teachers, 
and  find  them  essential  to  the  well-working  of  their 
systems  of  education.  Such  men  as  Dinter,  Cousin 
and  Brougham  have  advocated  the  establishment 
of  Normal  Schools.  These  schools  have  also  been 
established  in  many  of  our  American  States;  and 
though  they  have  encountered  much  opposition, 


TEACHEES  EEQUIRE  SPECIAL  PREPARATION.     33 

they  have  everywhere  met  with  signal  success.  The 
public  have  seen  teachers  who  have  made  special 
preparation  at  Normal  Schools  work  by  the  side  of 
those  who  have  not  made  such  preparation ;  with 
the  shrewdness  characteristic  of  our  people  a  com 
parison  of  their  respective  merits  has  been  made, 
and  the  conclusion  is  best  expressed  in  the  liberal 
patronage  which  such  schools  receive  and  the  hun 
dreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  which  are  annually 
expended  for  their  support. 

The  reasons  just  stated  are  sufficient  to  show  that 
teachers  require  special  preparation,  and  their  state 
ment  seems  appropriately  to  introduce  a  work  on 
Teaching  which  aims  to  aid  in  that  preparation.  If 
any  teacher,  or  any  one  who  designs  to  become  a 
teacher  feels  the  want  of  the  preparation  which  it 
has  been  shown  teachers  need,  he  is  invited  to  study 
the  subject  as  presented  in  the  following  pages; 
and  it  is  hoped  he  will  not  only  find  that  which  will 
increase  his  ability  to  discharge  the  duties  incum 
bent  upon  the  teacher,  but  that  which  wil)  elevate 
his  idea  of  the  importance  and  dignity  of  the 
teachers'  profession. 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES. 

Human  perfection  is  the  grand  aim  of  all  well 
directed  education.  The  teacher  has  ever  present 
with  him  his  ideal  man  whose  perfections  he  would 
realize  in  the  children  committed  to  his  care,  as  the 
sculptor  would  realize  the  pure  forms  of  his  imagina 
tion  in  the  rough  marhle  that  lies  unchiseled  "before 
him.  Embraced  in  this  great  end  of  education  there 
are  several  subordinate  ends,  that  of  gaining  know 
ledge,  that  of  attaining  discipline,  that  of  lifting  up 
the  mind  to  the  contemplation  of  pure  beauty,  truth, 
and  excellence,  and  that  of  fitting  ourselves  to  per 
form  in  the  best  manner  possible  all  our  duties  to 
man  and  to  God. 

Granted,  that  this  is  a  true  conception  of  the  end 
of  all  education,  and  the  object-matter  which  must 
form  the  foundation  for  a  system  of  teaching,  will 
comprehend :  1st.  The  nature  of  the  thing  to  be 
operated  upon,  or  educational  capabilities;  2d.  The 
nature  of  the  instrumentalities  which  may  be  used 
in  operating  upon  it,  or  educational  means  ;  3d.  The 
manner  of  performing  the  operation,  or  educational 
method's.  A  system  of  agriculture  is  likewise  divis 
ible  into  three  parts;  that  which  treats  of  the  soil, 
that  which  treats  of  the  means  of  fertilizing  or  work 
ing  it,  and  that  which  treats  of  the  methods  of 
applying  the  means  to  the  desired  end.  A  system 


CONDITIONING    PRINCIPLES.  35 

of  Medicine,  too,  consists  essentially  of  the  sciences 
of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Pharmacy,  and  the 
Practice  of  Medicine. 

In  a  system  of  teaching,  the  thing  to  be  operated 
upon  is  man;  the  means  wherewith  to  operate  are 
found  in  everything  that  can  be  made  to  bear  an  ob 
jective  relation  to  man  ;  and  the  methods  according 
to  which  the  operation  must  be  performed  can  have  a 
basis  nowhere  but  in  the  relations  the  mind  and  body 
sustain  to  each  other  and  to  the  great  universe. 

The  whole  subject  admits  treatment  from  two 
stand-points  :  1st.  The  nature  of  man  and  the  methods 
of  educating  him  according  to  the  laws  of  that  nature; 
2d.  The  nature  of  the  several  branches  of  knowledge 
and  the  methods  of  teaching  them  according  to  the  laws 
of  that  nature. 

Proceeding  from  the  first  of  these  stand-points, 
we  commence  with  the  study  of  man,  learn  his 
educational  necessities  and  capabilities,  and  conclude 
with  an  exposition  of  the  methods  by  which  he  can 
best  be  educated.  Proceeding  from  the  second 
stand-point,  we  commence  by  an  examination  of  the 
means  which  may  be  made  use  of  in  the  work  of 
education,  the  several  branches  of  knowledge ;  in 
quire  into  their  relations  and  conditions,  and  close 
the  investigation  by  presenting  the  methods  by 
which  knowledge  can  be  best  imparted.  The  whole 
subject  of  teaching  may  therefore  be  divided  into 
two  great  parts,  appropriately  called  METHODS  OF 
CULTURE  and  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION.  If  the  two 
classes  of  methods  thus  arrived  at  are  found  to  har 
monize,  no  further  verification  of  their  truthfulness 
is  needed. 


86  METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

The  subject  of  Methods  of  Culture  may  be  treated 
of  hereafter,  but,  in  the  present  volume,  it  is  my 
intention  to  consider  only  Methods  of  Instruction. 
Care  will  be  taken,  however,  to  verify  conclusions 
in  all  open  ways  before  announcing  them. 

The  methods  adopted  in  the  work  of  teaching 
may  be  right  or  they  may  be  wrong.  Just  so  the  hor 
ticulturist  can  stimulate  his  plants  to  a  more  active 
growth  or  he  may  destroy  them,  the  lawyer  may 
gain  or  lose  his  cause,  the  physician  may  cure  or 
kill  his  patient ;  and  even  the  mechanic  may  operate 
upon  his  wood,  or  clay,  or  iron  by  skilful  or  unskil 
ful  processes.  Immortal  minds  are  committed  to 
the  teacher's  charge.  If  he  adopt  right  methods  of 
teaching  he  can  make  those  minds  bear  an  image 
worthy  of  their  heavenly  origin  and  destiny  and  of 
Him  who  created  them ;  but  if  he  pursue  wrong 
methods  they  may  be  marred  and  debased  until 
they  become  the  most  lamentable  of  all  spectacles, 
wrecked  and  ruined  human  souls. 

Starting  with  the  obvious  fact  that  there  may  be 
right  and  wrong  methods  of  teaching,  I  proceed  to 
take  the  first  step  in  the  search  for  those  that  are 
right  by  stating  some  of  the  principles  which  all 
such  methods  must  observe,  and  which  have  been 
denominated  CONDITIONING  PRINCIPLES. 

Methods  of  intellectual  education  must  be  condi 
tioned  on  the  one  hand  by  the  nature  of  mind,  and 
on  the  other  by  the  nature  of  knowledge ;  the  sub 
ject,  therefore,  will  be  considered  in  two  sections. 
The  first  will  embrace  a  statement  of  principles  that 
belong  rather  to  Methods  of  Culture,  but  whose 
guiding  light  cannot  well  be  dispensed  with  in  the 


CONDITIONING    PRINCIPLES.  37 

department  of  education  now  under  consideration. 
Upon  an  examination  of  these  principles,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  two  sources  from  which  they  are 
drawn  yield  the  same  fruit  —  one  set  of  principles 
corresponding  with  the  other  —  and  a  basis  for  the 
science  of  teaching  is  found  either  in  mind  or  in 
nature,  is  both  Psychological  and  Cosmological.  In 
order  that  the  student  may  better  appreciate  the 
beautiful  correlation  existing  between  the  two  sets 
of  principles,  the  corresponding  propositions  will  be 
numbered  alike. 

This  classification  of  principles,  it  ought  to  be 
remarked,  is  intended  to  embrace  only  the  most 
important  of  those  which  appertain  to  intellectual 
education  —  it  is  not  exhaustive. 

I.  Principles  Inferable  from  the  Nature  of 
Mind. 

The  nature  of  a  thing  acted  upon  always  gov 
erns  in  some  measure  the  methods  of  acting  upon 
it.  If  soils  were  differently  constituted,  farmers 
would  be  under  the  necessity  of  changing  their 
modes  of  cultivation  ;  if  the  diseased  human  body 
was  unlike  it  now  is,  a  corresponding  modification 
would  be  necessary  in  systems  of  medical  practice. 
The  same  process  that  will  put  in  motion  particles 
of  air  or  water  will  not  separate  those  of  quartz  or 
granite.  TVrood  and  iron  cannot  be  worked  in  the 
same  manner  nor  with  the  same  tools.  {lenca 
educational  principles  are  inferable  from  the  uature 
of  mind,  and  among  them  are  those  which  follow  :  — 


1.  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES  CAN  RECEIVE 

4 


•S8  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

TURE  ONLY  BY  JUDICIOUS  EXERCISE. — No  means  are' 
known  whereby  the  faculties  of  the  mind  can  be 
developed  but  by  exercising  them.  By  the  potent 
spell  of  the  magic  word  Exercise,  is  evoked  all 
human  power. 

The  proof  of  this  proposition  is  found  in  multi 
tudes  of  facts.  The  senses  grow  more  acute  by 
using  them.  The  memory  is  improved  by  remem 
bering,  the  reason  by  reasoning,  the  imagination  by 
imagining.  All  these  powers,  too,  become  weak 
if  not  used.  These  facts  may  be  learned  from  each 
person's  own  experience,  or  from  observation  upon 
others.  The  law  inferred  from  them  is  fixed  and 
universal. 

Exercise,  however,  in  order  to  strengthen  must 
be  judicious.  Too  much  or  improper  exercise  will 
weaken  the  mind's  powers  instead  of  giving  them 
strength. 

2.  THE  HUMAN  INTELLECT  EMBRACES  A  NUMBER  OF 
DISTINCT  FACULTIES  EACH  OF  WHICH  REQUIRES  A  DIF 
FERENT  KIND  OF  CULTURE. — It  is  acknowledged  that 
the  body  may  be  made  strong  without  giving 
strength  to  the  mind,  that  our  intellectual,  emotional, 
and  executive  faculties  can,  as  classes,  receive  an 
independent  culture.  This  law  holds  good  of  the 
distinctive  faculties  that  make  up  the  human  intel 
lect.  It  requires  one  mode  of  culture  to  educate 
the  senses  and  the  perceptive  powers,  another  to 
strengthen  the  memory,  and  still  others  to  develop 
the  powers  of  recollection,  imagination,  comparison, 
and  reason.  Each  intellectual  power  differs  from 
the  others  in  its  nature,  in  its  mode  of  operation, 


TONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  39 

and  modes  of  culture  must  adapt  themselves  to  these 
differences.  He  would  be  like  a  blind  man  leading 
a  blind  man  who  should  attempt  to  teach,  ignorant 
of  this  great  law. 

3.  HUMAN  BEINGS  HAVE  BEEN  CREATED  WITH  DIF 
FERENT  TASTES  AND  TALENTS  TO  FIT  THEM  FOR  PERFORM 
ING  DIFFERENT  DUTIES  OR  FOR  OCCUPYING  DIFFERENT 

SPHERES  IN  LIFE. — That  children  differ  in  tastes  and 
talents  every  parent  and  every  teacher  is  agreed. 
The  Bible  intimates  the  same  fact.  The  reason  pro 
bably  is  that,  as  in  nature's  system  each  necessary 
office  was  designed  to  be  filled  by  a  qualified  officer, 
men  differ  because  their  social  duties  or  their  spheres 
in  life  are  different.  But,  whatever  the  reason,  the  fact 
is  certain,  and  is  of  great  significance  to  the  educa 
tor.  It  teaches  him  that  he  must  plan  his  system 
of  Teaching  with  reference  to  the  peculiar  tastes 
and  talents  of  children. 

Doubtless,  certain  kinds  of  general  knowledge  and 
certain  kinds  of  mental  discipline  maybe  considered 
indispensable  for  all ;  but,  in  addition,  every  true 
teacher  should  consider  it  a  privilege  to  furnish 
each  one  of  his  pupils  an  opportunity  for  the  de 
velopment  of  his  special  powers.  The  aim  of  edu 
cation  is  not  to  make  all  men  move  in  the  same 
plane — to  create  a  social  dead-level.  Protestations 
have  been  made  against  the  prescribed,  unvaried 
course  of  instruction  in  institutions  of  learning,  and 
not  always  without  reason.  Such  men  a's  Lord 
B}Tron,  Hugh  Miller,  and  Dr.  Kane  were  restless 
while  made  to  pursue  those  branches  of  study  in 
which  they  felt  little  interest,  and  indulged  by 


40  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

stealth  those  special  talents  which  God  had  given 
them.  Educate  together  from  their  youth  up  such 
men  as  Plato  and  Aristotle,  Kant  and  Goethe,  New 
ton  and  Burns,  La  Place  and  Lamartine,  Benjamin 
Franklin  and  Patrick  Henry,  and  they  might  be 
made  more  alike,  but  would  the  world  profit  so 
much  by  their  genius  ?  A  wise  system  of  education 
aims  to  render  available  all  the  mental  force  of  the 
world.  The  mechanic  may  contrive  and  the  mer 
chant  make  his  ventures,  the  farmer  watch  his 
harvests  and  the  statesman  promulgate  his  laws,  the 
naturalist  search  and  the  philosopher  speculate,  the 
poet  kindle  the  fires  of  genius  upon  their  intended 
altars,  and  the  prophet  pluck  down  manna  from 
Heaven  to  feed  soul-hungry  mortals — the  world 
needs  them  all,  and  teachers  must  not  attempt  to 
thwart  what  God  seems  to  have  designed.  But  in 
all  this  it  must  be  remembered  that  special  talent 
may  result  from  education  as  well  as  be  the  gift  of 
nature.  No  fact  is  more  open  to  the  notice  of  an 
observer  of  the  phenomena  of  mind  than  that  mental 
force  may  be  directed  artificially  to  certain  faculties 
which  grow  strong  by  use,  while  others  are  dwarfed 
for  want  of  exercise. 

4.  THE  PERCEPTIVE  POWERS  ARE  STRONGER  AND 
MORE  ACTIVE  IN  YOUTH  THAN  THE  OTHER  INTELLEC 
TUAL  FACULTIES  AND  THUS  FURNISH  A  BASIS  FOR  Till: 

SUPERSTRUCTURE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. — A  child  is  merely 
an  animal  until  there  is  awakened  in  him  the  power 
of  self-consciousness.  After  this  I  can  find  no  time- 
when  all  his  faculties  are  not  active  in  some  degree ; 
but  his  perceptive  powers  are  the  strongest  and  most 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  41 

active  during  the  whole  period  of  childhood  and 
youth.  Any  one  who  will  observe  children  can 
scarcely  doubt  this  fact.  They  like  to  see  and  hear 
things.  What  is  new  or  strange  attracts  them. 
How  rapidly  they  learn  the  form,  color,  size,  and 
other  qualities  of  things !  What  an  immense  num 
ber  of  facts  they  acquaint  themselves  with  as  they 
play  in  garden  or  yard,  walk  through  field  or 
meadow,  or  pass  along  street  or  highway  ! 

We  do  not,  as  some  have  taught  we  do,  derive  all 
our  knowledge  from  experience;  but  no  psycholo 
gical  truth  is  more  obvious  than  that  we  cannot 
know  anything  without  experience.  For  the  attain 
ment  of  certain  necessary,  regulative  truths,  expe 
rience  may  furnish  only  the  occasion;  but  its  neces 
sity  to  the  knowing  process  is  not  less  real  when  it 
stands  directly  as  the  source  of  our  knowing  than 
when  it  stands  indirectly  as  the  occasion  of  it — when 
it  determines  the  limits  of  our  knowledge  than  when 
our  knowledge  transcends  its  limits.  Experience 
therefore  may  be  said  to  form  the  basis  of  know 
ledge. 

Convincing  reasons  may  be  found  in  what  has 
now  been  said,  in  favor  of  enlarging  experience  as 
much  as  possible  by  taking  advantage  in  the  work 
of  education  of  the  strong  and  active  perceptive 
powers  of  the  3roung.  Let  teachers  make  them  ac 
quainted  with  things,  facts,  phenomena,  that  they 
may  have  a  broad  basis  upon  which  to  erect  the 
superstructure  of  knowledge. 

o.    COMMENCING  WITH  THE  PERCEPTIVE   POWERS, 

THE   VARIOUS   INTELLECTUAL   FACULTIES    INCREASE    IN 
4* 


42  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION". 

RELATIVE  STRENGTH  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  ORDER: 
MEMORY,  RECOLLECTION,  IMAGINATION,  UNDER 
STANDING,  REASON. — It  must  not  be  understood  that 
the  first  named  of  these  faculties  attains  maturity 
while  the  others  remain  in  a  state  of  inactivity. 
Probably,  a  child  in  the  simple  act  of  refusing  to  put 
its  hand  against  a  hot  stove  to-day  because  yester 
day  it  was  burned  in  doing  it,  makes  use  of  all  the 
faculties  it  ever  will  possess.  Still  these  faculties 
are  relatively  stronger  at  some  periods  of  life  than 
at  others,  and  this  fact  cannot  be  overlooked  in 
teaching. 

As  used  here,  Memory  is  the  power  of  retaining 
knowledge  ;  Recollection  is  the  power  by  which  we 
awaken  what  lies  dormant  in  the  mind ;  Imagina 
tion  is  the  power  the  mind  has  of  holding  up  vividly 
before  itself  the  thoughts  which  it  has  recalled  into 
consciousness ;  Understanding  is  the  power  by  which 
we  judge  of  relations;  and  Reason  is  the  power  that 
gives  birth  to  those  necessary  and  universal  princi 
ples  which  control  all  thinking.  It  is  proper  to 
remark  that  this  classification  is  essentially  Hamil 
ton's,  and  the  definitions  are,  in  part,  his. 

It  is  evident  that  knowledge  must  be  retained 
before  it  can  be  recalled,  that  it  must  be  recalled 
before  it  can  be  held  up  for  contemplation,  that  it 
m\ist  be  held  up  before  the  mind  before  its  relations 
can  be  judged  of,  and  that  the  whole  thinking  pro 
cess  must  go  on  before  it  can  be  controlled  or  regu 
lated.  Logically,  therefore,  the  activities  of  the 
several  faculties  do  follow  an  order  of  succession, 
but  practically  the  whole  goes  on  simultaneously 


CONDITIONING   PEINCIPLES.  43 

Still,  as  before  stated,  these  activities  differ  relatively 
in  degree  during  the  different  periods  of  life. 

Next  to  the  Perceptive  powers  the  Memory  is  the 
most  vigorous  intellectual  faculty  possessed  by  the 
young.  It  is  the  granary  of  the  mind.  Let  it  be 
well  filled  while  it  can  be,  as  from  its  stores  all  the 
other  faculties  must  take  their  materials. 

A  little  later  the  faculties  of  Recollection  and 
Imagination  are  developed  in  full  strength.  Both 
are  engaged  in  lifting  up  the  elements  of  knowledge 
from  the  depths  of  the  Memory  and  placing  them 
in  vivid  pictures  before  the  mind.  The  forms  of 
the  Imagination  are,  however,  at  first  rude  and 
fanciful,  being  yet  unchastened  by  the  higher  powers 
of  Judgment  and  Reason. 

The  Understanding  is  the  working  power  of  the 
mind.  It  studies  the  relations  of  wholes  to  parts, 
parts  to  wholes,  and  things  to  one  another.  It 
classifies,  generalizes,  reasons.  This  power,  al 
though  manifesting  itself  in  a  little  child,  does  not 
att&iu  maturity  until  the  age  of  manhood. 

The  Reason  rules  the  mind.  As  soon  as  a  child 
is  conscious  of  the  identity  or  difference  of  two 
objects,  he  must  use  his  Reason;  nor  can  he  take  a 
single  step  in  any  intellectual  process  without  its 
aid.  But,  while  this  is  true,  Reason  can  never  assume 
full  sway  until  all  the  other  intellectual  faculties 
perform  their  work.  A  commanding  general  can 
not  wield  the  whole  power  of  his  army  unless  every 
subordinate  officer  and  every  private  does  his  duty. 
JSTone  but  a  man  intellectually  full-grown  can  make 
a  light  use  of  his  Reason,  and  the  most  difficult  of 
all  Philosophies  is  the  Philosophy  of  Reason  itself. 


44  METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION". 

6.  THE  HUMAN  MIND  POSSESSES  TWO  SOURCES  OF 
KNOWLEDGE,  THE  SENSES  AND  THE  REASON,  THE  PRO 
DUCTS  OF  WHICH  DIFFER  IN  KIND.  —  That  we  derive 
knowledge  through  the  senses,  no  one  doubts.  It 
consists,  in  the  first  place  of  facts,  which,  however, 
may  be  elaborated  into  systems  of  science.  Know 
ledge  thus  derived  may  be  called  empirical  know 
ledge,  because  its  source  is  experience. 

That  we  possess  knowledge  which  we  do  not 
derive  through  the  senses  must  be  evident  to  all 
who  will  consider  the  matter.  Our  idea  of  space, 
for  example,  is  not  merely  the  sum  of  all  the  spaces 
embraced  in  our  experience,  but  it  transcends  all 
possible  experience.  So  of  the  idea  of  time.  We 
can  acquaint  ourselves  with  things  that  are  very 
great  in  extent — the  earth,  the  distances  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  the  profound  abysses  penetrated 
by  the  telescope,  but  still  we  know  that  all  these 
are  limited,  finite,  and  we  cannot  help  believing  that 
there  is  something  more,  the  unlimited,  the  infinite. 
~No  experience  can  show  us  that  two  straight  lines 
cannot  enclose  a  space,  or  that  two  parallel  lines 
will  never  meet,  and  yet  we  know  that  such  is  the 
case.  We  may,  indeed,  have  no  adequate  concep 
tion  of  the  absolute  or  the  infinite,  of  a  creation, 
of  God,  or  of  immortality;  but  certainly  we  have 
ground  for  thinking  that  there  is  something  un 
caused,  something  unlimited,  that  the  universe  had 
a  beginning,  that  God  is,  and  the  human  spirit  is 
immortal.  In  every  direction  the  intuitions  of  the 
Reason  overleap  the  boundaries  of  experience,  and 
furnish,  at  least,  a  ground  for  enlightened  faith, 
As  the  Reason  is  the  source  of  the  kind  of  know- 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  46 

ledge  now  referred  to,  it  may  be  called  rational 
knowledge. 

Empirical  knowledge  includes  all  that  concerns 
the  qualities  and  quantities  of  things,  the  relations 
of  substances  and  attributes,  and  causes  and  effects, 
and  systems  of  inductive  science.  Rational  know 
ledge  includes  the  universal  and  necessary  princi 
ples  which  condition  the  whole  of  the  mind's  opera 
tions,  which  form  the  foundation  of  all  Philosophy, 
properly  so  called,  and  upon  which  must  rest  all 
firm  faith  in  "things  unseen." 

The  value  of  what  has  just  been  said  will  be 
appreciated  by  the  many  thinking  teachers  who 
lament  the  materialistic  tendencies  of  some  of  our 
modern  systems  of  education.  All  the  knowledge 
that  can  be  gained  through  the  senses  may  be,  but 
why  should  we  close  up  that  other  fountain  of  the 
soul  from  which  comes  knowledge  richer  and 
purer?  It  will  do  us  good  to  remember  that  "Man 
cannot  live  by  bread  alone." 

7.  IN  ACQUIRING  KNOWLEDGE  THE  MIND  FIRST  DIS 
TINGUISHES  ITS  OBJECTS  IN  KIND,  THEN  IN  QUANTITY, 
AND  AFTERWARDS  IN  THEIR  RELATIONS.  — Perhaps  the 

distinguishing  of  an  object  in  kind  involves  some 
what  of  the  processes  of  distinguishing  it  in  quan 
tity,  and  in  its  relations ;  but  the  arrangement  as 
expressed  is  as  correct  as  any  serial  arrangement 
of  mental  phenomena  can  be,  and  will  be  found  to 
have  much  practical  value  in  the  work  of  education. 
A  child  first  noticing  objects,  retains  only  that 
general  impression  of  them  which  enables  him  to 
reccgnize  them  among  other  objects.  Long  after- 


4:6  METHODS   OF    INSTRUCTION". 

wards,  it  may  be,  he  attends  to  them  more  closely, 
makes  accurate  measurements  of  the  qualities  he 
observes,  or  determines  their  quantities.  Still  later 
he  learns  to  inquire  into  causes,  to  look  for  ends,  to 
estimate'  uses. 

Our  investigations  concerning  what  is  new  to  us 
follow  the  same  order.  Take  a  crystal :  we  first  dis 
tinguish  it  from  other  things;  then  count  its  faces, 
measure  its  angles,  test  its  structure  ;  and  afterwards 
search  for  the  causes  which  may  have  been  opera 
tive  in  its  formation.  Take  heat :  we  bring  it  under 
observation  as  a  distinct  object;  we  invent  thermom 
eters  to  measure  it,  and  then  busy  ourselves  in  find 
ing  a  theory  that  will  account  for  its  facts. 

The  genesis  of  science  is  in  accordance  with  the 
same  principle.  Astronomy,  in  its  beginnings,  con 
sisted  of  the  loose  observations  ignorant  men  could 

O 

make  with  the  unaided  vision.  In  course  of  time 
observations  became  more  numerous  and  more 
exact  until  measurements  were  attempted;  and 
finally  the  speculations  of  Copernicus  and  Galileo, 
and  the  great  discoveries  of  Kepler  and  Newton 
made  the  study  of  the  stars,  a  science.  Some  facts, 
belonging  to  the  science  of  chemistry,  must  have 
been  possessed  by  the  most  ignorant  savages  ;  these 
greatly  multiplied  would  naturally  attract  the  atten 
tion  of  men  in  more  highly  civilized  communities, 
who  would  set  about  determining  their  nature,  their 
quantity  ;  and,  by-and-by,  laws  would  be  discovered 
and  a  science  begin  to  emerge  from  the  confused 
mass  of  materials.  The  other  sciences  have  grown 
up  in  the  same  way. 

8.   THE  RATIOCINATIVE  FACULTY  IN   ELABOKATING 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  47 

SYSTEMS  OP  SCIENCE  PROCEEDS  INDUCTIVELY  OR  DEDUC 
TIVELY,  ANALYTICALLY  OR  SYNTHETICALLY. 1  US6  the 

expression  ratiocinative  faculty  to  designate  a  specific 
application  of  the  faculty  of  the  Understanding. 

Starting  out  with  the  products  of  the  Senses  and 
the  Reason,  two  modes  of  dealing  with  them  are 
possible.  We  can  commence  with  particular  phe 
nomena,  and  proceed  to  find  the  general  laws  which 
comprehend  them.  This  is  Induction.  It  is  a 
process  of  involution. 

We  can  commence  with  general  or  universal 
truths,  and  proceed  to  find  the  particular  truths 
which  are  embodied  in  them.  This  is  Deduction 
It  is  a  process  of  evolution. 

All  reasoning  must  be  either  inductive  or  deduc 
tive.  "We  can  take  wholes  and  unfold  their  parts, 
or  we  can  take  parts  and  unite  them  into  wholes, 
but  all  thinking  in  judgments  must  assume  one  or 
the  other  of  these  forms.  Logicians  use  but  two 
kinds  of  syllogism,  the  inductive  and  the  deductive. 

Analysis  and  synthesis  are  the  servants  of  induc 
tion  and  deduction.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a 
whole  into  the  elements  which  compose  it.  Syn 
thesis  is  the  composition  of  a  whole  from  the  parts 
which  belong  to  it.  An  observer  noticing  a  phe 
nomenon  which  he  wishes  to  understand,  simplifies 
it  by  division,  and  then  infers  the  law  that  controls 
it.  Thus  his  power  of  induction  is  aided  by  analysis. 
Or  he  may  have  discovered  a  number  of  different 
-.aws  relating  to  phenomena  and  desire  to  combine 
them  all  into  a  system  of  science,  and  this  can  be 
done  only  by  the  process  of  multiplication.  Thus 
his  power  of  induction  is  aided  by  synthesis.  The 


48  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

general  or  universal  principles  with  which  deduction 
begins  imply  in  their  very  names  the  existence  of 
special  or  conditioned  principles,  from  which  they 
can  be  discriminated  only  by  a  process  of  analysis. 
Thus  analysis  aids  deduction.  A  deductive  science 
like  Geometry  is  made  up  of  a  system  of  truths  de 
pending  upon  axioms,  definitions,  and  preceding 
demonstrations,  and  is  a  work  of  synthesis.  Thus 
synthesis  aids  deduction. 

Systems  of  science,  therefore,  must  be  elaborated 
by  the  methods  of  induction  and  deduction  aided 
by  those  of  analysis  and  synthesis,  and  the  methods 
used  in  constructing  systems  of  science  must  also  be 
used  in  teaching  them. 

9.  THE  ACQUISITIVE  POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  IN  GET 
TING  KNOWLEDGE  OPERATE  ACCORDING  TO  CERTAIN 
LAWS  OF  SUGGESTION. — The  laws  of  susr^estion  are 

OO 

operative  in  the  search  for  original  knowledge.  "We 
begin  to  make  observations  upon  a  particular  object, 
directly  it  presents  itself  in  another  point  of  view, 
and  then  in  still  another ;  and  thus  we  are  led  for 
ward  in  a  series  of  successive  steps.  Or  from  one 
object,  we  may  pass  to  another,  and  then  to  others, 
neglecting  many  but  selecting  some,  which  upon  an 
examination  of  the  train  will  be  found  to  follow 
one  another  according  to  some  principle  of  sugges 
tion.  Series  of  experiments,  too,  are  mostly  carried 
on  in  the  same  way,  the  first  suggesting  the  second, 
and  the  second  the  third,  and  so  to  the  end.  That 
the  mind  thus  proceeds  in  getting  knowledge  by 
means  of  observation  and  experiment  there  can  be 
uo  doubt  Suggestion  of  a  different  kind  may  lead 


CONDITIONING   PKINCIPLES.  49 

it  on  from  one  set  of  reasonings  to  another,  but  still 
this  higher  work  of  the  mind  may  be  considered  as 
proceeding  according  to  the  same  law. 

The  laws  of  suggestion  are  operative  in  the  study 
of  acquired  knowledge.  It  is  associated  facts  that 
most  attract  children  and  most  engage  their  atten 
tion.  Present  them  as  isolated  statements  and  they 
will  be  forgotten,  weave  them  into  a  narrative  or 
story,  and  they  impress  themselves  on  the  memory 
forever.  The  advance  in  study  is  most  rapid  where 
the  facts  to  be  learned  are  systematically  arranged, 
when  all  the  parts  of  the  sciences  under  considera 
tion  follow  one  another  in  a  logical  order. 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  that  teachers 
should  understand  the  laws  of  suggestion,  and  take 
advantage  of  them  in  imparting  knowledge. 

10.  THE  REPRODUCTIVE  POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  BY 
MEANS  OF  LAWS  OF  ASSOCIATION  ENABLE  IT  TO  RECALL 
ITS  KNOWLEDGE  AND  TO  HOLD  IT  UP  IN  VIVID  PICTURES 
BEFORE  IT. — Every  one  is  aware  that  his  thoughts 
are  not  isolated,  but  that  each  is  a  link  in  a  chain. 
It  is  proper  to  speak  of  a  train  of  thought.  Some  cir 
cumstance  suggests  a  thought,  that  suggests  another, 
and  so  on  in  a  ceaseless  flow.  Or  we  can  hold  up 
before  the  mind  one  conception  or  element  of 
thought,  and  immediately  other  conceptions  or 
elements  of  thought  crowd  about  it  and  appear  in 
connected  or  related  clusters. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  says  that  "  thoughts  are 
associated,  or  able  to  excite  each  other:  1st,  if  co 
existent,  or  immediately  successive  in  time ;  2d,  if 
their  objects  are  conterminous,  or  adjoining  in  space ; 
6 


50  METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

3d,  if  they  hold  the  dependence  to  each  other  of 
cause  and  effect,  or  of  mean  and  end,  or  of  whole 
and  part;  4th,  if  they  stand  in  a  relation  either  of 
contrast  or  of  similarity ;  5th,  if  they  are  the  opera 
tions  of  the  same  power,  or  of  different  powers  con 
versant  about  the  same  object;  6th,  if  their  objects 
are  the  sign  and  the  thing  signified ;  or  7th,  even 
if  their  objects  are  accidentally  denoted  by  the  same 
sound."  These  la\vs  may  be  reduced  in  number,  but 
they  seem  more  easily  applied  as  stated.  They  must 
condition  the  whole  work  of  imparting  knowledge. 
Questions  cannot  be  asked  by  a  teacher,  nor  can 
answers  be  given  by  pupils  skilfully  without  ob 
serving  them.  They  determine  the  order  of  arrange 
ment  in  both  science  and  art. 

11.  THE  PRODUCTIVE  POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  ENABLE 
IT  TO  MAKE  NEW  DISCOVERIES  AND  NEW  INVENTIONS. — 
Facts  disprove  the  doctrine  of  those  who  maintain 
that  there  is  nothing  new,  that  what  seems  new  is 
but  the  revival  of  the  old  which  had  been  forgotten. 
Ideas  may  not  be  innate,  but  we  have  innate  powers 
of  mental  production.  There  can  be  originality  in 
this  sense,  that  one  man  may  think  something  that 
no  other  man  ever  thought.  Apparent  chance  may 
present  a  fact,  or  occasion  a  circumstance,  which  a 
thousand  men  will  pass  by  unheeding,  but  at  last 
one  comes  that  way  to  whom  its  language  is  intelli 
gible,  and  the  world  is  blessed  with  a  new  discovery, 
or  a  new  invention — a  law  of  gravitation  or  a  steam- 
engine.  The  mind  has  productive  powers.  It  is 
not  like  a  mirror  reflecting  back  only  what  is  pre 
sented  before  it.  It  is  an  active  principle,  capable 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  51 

of  guiding  its  own  exertions,  capable  of  making 
plans,  capable  of  searching  for  truth  and  of  apply 
ing  it  to  new  uses,  and  expressing  it  in  new  forms. 
Such  powers  ought  riot  to  rust  away  in  inactivity. 

12.  THE  HUMAN  INTELLECT   GROWS  ONLY  BY  ITS 
OWN  INHERENT  ENERGIES. — All  true  education  is  a 
growth.     The  mind  is  not  a  mere  capacity  to  be 
filled  like  a  granary,  it  is  a  power  to  be  developed. 
It  is  no  tabula  rasa — no  blank  sheet  of  paper  to  be 
written   upon,  but   it  has   innate   activities  which 
prompt  it  towards  its  end,  and  cause  it  to  modify  all 
with  which  it  comes  in  contact.     The  horticulturist 
puts  his  seed  in  good  soil,  surrounds  the  plants  with 
circumstances    most  favorable   to   their   growth  (a 
proper  degree  of  heat,  light,  and  moisture),  protects 
them  from  injuries,  and  expects  his  crop.    He  knows 
that  the  life-principle  which  God  placed  in  the  seed 
needs  but  opportunity  to  grow.    The  mind  must  re 
ceive  a  like  culture.     When  the  human  body  needs 
food  the  healthy  appetite  craves  it,   and  if  taken 
into  the  stomach  without  such  craving,  it  is  apt  to 
clog  the  system  rather  than  to  nourish  it.     Neither 
can  the  mind  be  forced  to  digest  its  food.     Even  an 
unprofessional  diagnosis  reveals  the  fact  that  there 
#re  many  cases  of  mental  dyspepsia  in  our  schools. 
A  desire  to  know  is  the  mental  appetite,  and  the 
gratification  of  this  desire  must  be  a  primary  condi 
tion  for  all  normal  growth  of  the  intellect. 

13.  THE  AcTa  OF  MEN  DO  NOT  DERIVE  THEIR  MORAL 
QUALITY  FROM  THE  INTELLECT. — The  best  fruit  of  the 
intellect  is  science,  and  the  principles  of  science 


52  METHODS    OF    INSTKUCTIOtf. 

cannot  be  said  to  be  right  or  wrong — they  are  simply 
truths.  The  intellect,  indeed,  enables  us  to  com 
prehend  moral  as  well  as  other  truths,  but,  in  the 
mere  comprehension  of  a  moral  truth,  I  can  detect 
no  moral  element. 

It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  that  intellectual 
culture  has  no  relation  to  moral  and  religious  cul 
ture.  It  is  intellectual  culture  that  renders  moral 
and  religious  culture  possible.  The  intellect  is  the 
eye  of  the  soul,  and  all  our  seeing  earthward  and 
heavenward  is  done  by  it.  It  is  the  intellect  that 
reveals  God  in  His  works,  in  His  Word,  and  in  the 
human  soul.  A  man  may  be  pious  and  know  little 
of  the  principles  of  science,  but  he  must  have  sources 
of  light  within  himself. 

The  culture  of  the  intellect  must  precede  all  other 
culture.  We  must  acquaint  ourselves  with  acts 
before  we  can  judge  whether  they  are  right  or 
wrong.  "We  must  know  that  God  is,  before  we  can 
love  him.  A  knowledge  of  the  important  Psycho 
logical  fact,  that  the  intellectual  capacity  of  the 
mind  acts  of  itself  in  the  presence  of  its  objects, 
and  that  the  emotive  and  executive  capacities  await 
the  action  of  the  intellect,  would  have  enabled  mis 
sionaries  to  understand,  long  before  they  found  it 
out  by  costly  experience,  that  schools  must  precede 
churches  in  heathen  countries  in  order  to  make  their 
labors  most  effectual.  The  principle  is  applicable 
everywhere. 

14.  THE  INTELLECT  OF  MAN  HAS  LIMITS  WHICH  NO 
EXTENT  OF  EDUCATION  CAN  ENABLE  IT  TO  PASS. — In 
all  human  reasoning  something  has  to  be  taken  for 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  53 

granted.  The  most  profound  logic  can  neither  take 
us  back  to  a  beginning  nor  lead  us  forward  to  an 
end.  Looking  backward,  successions  in  nature  seem 
like  an  endless  chain  of  effects  and  causes,  and, 
looking  forward,  they  seem  like  an  endless  chain  of 
causes  and  effects.  We  can  think  successive  periods 
in  time  or  points  in  space  until  the  imagination 
grows  weary  with  the  vast  summation,  but  still  there 
is  more  beyond.  We  can  mount  the  great  ladder 
of  successive  causes  until  our  heads  groAV  dizzy,  and 
yet  we  fail  to  form  an  adequate  conception  of  the 
absolute.  Finite  ourselves  we  cannot  measure  the 
infinite. 

All  that  is  said  in  the  preceding  paragraph  is 
true,  and  yet  it  does  not  express  the  exact  limit? 
tions  of  human  thought.  We  cannot  measure  the 
infinite,  but  we  can  think  in  all  directions  beyond  the 
finite.  Our  idea  of  space  is  not  filled  by  the  sum 
of  all  experienced  spaces,  nor  our  idea  of  time  by 
the  sum  of  all  experienced  times.  We  feel  that 
there  are  more  links  in  the  chain  of  causation  than 
can  be  counted.  We  cannot  indeed  by  searching 
find  out  God,  but  we  can  know  that  lie  exists.  "A 
Deity  understood"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
"would  be  no  Deity  at  all."  The  highest  effort  of 
.reason  is  to  furnish  a  ground  for  faith.  We  have  a 
clear  view  up  to  the  boundaries  of  the  finite  and  the 
relative,  and  then  we  are  permitted — glorious  privi 
lege  ! — to  know  that  the  infinite  and  the  absolute, 
the  unconditioned — lie  beyond.  The  conviction 
Hiat  we  have  power  in  thought  to  overleap  the  con 
ditioned,  results  from  no  mere  blind  consciousness, 
us  some  have  said,  but  it  is  certain  knowledge.  We 

5* 


54  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

see  th^  light  but  we  cannot  approach  or  analyze  it. 
Oui  reason  gives  us  a  firm  ground  for  belief  in  the 
existence  of  God,  but  here  we  must  be  content  with 
an  imperfect  knowledge  of  Him. 


II.  Principles  Inferable  from  the  Nature  of 
Knowledge. 

I  mean  by  knowledge  the  means  made  use  of  in. 
Jie  work  of  education.  These  means  exist  both  in 
the  form  of  ascertained  and  unascertained  truth.  A 
teacher  may  content  himself  in  making  his  pupils 
a<vpiainted  with  what  knowledge  he  finds  in  books 
ami  what  he  knows  himself,  or  he  may  lead  them 
to  Iry  their  strength  in  wrenching  new  truth  from 
nature;  but  whether  ascertained  truth  be  taught  or 
unas< Certain ed  truth  be  sought  for,  the  nature  of  the 
truth  employed  will  vary  the  methods  of  imparting 
it.  T^e  principle  that  the  methods  of  operating 
upon  a  rhing  are  modified  by  the  means  used  in  the 
operatiou,  is  susceptible  of  many  illustrations.  The 
farmer  considers  the  nature  of  his  fertilizers  before 
he  adopts  a  method  of  applying  them  upon  his  fields, 
the  physician  regards  the  properties  of  his  medicines 
in  his  methods  of  administering  them,  and  the 
mechanic  handles  his  jack-plane  in  one  way  and 
his  hand-saw  in  another.  That  the  teacher  must 
perform  his  work  in  obedience  to  the  same  principle 
will  be  abundantly  proven  to  one  who  will  consider 
the  propositions  which  follow. 

1.  THE  SEVERAL  BRANCHES  OF  KNOWLEDGE  CAN  BE 
MADE  TO  FURNISH  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES  WITH 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  65 

EXERCISE  PROPER  IN  KIND  AND  QUANTITY. — The  intel 
lectual  faculties  grow  only  by  exercising  them,  and 
bountiful  provision  is  made  for  such  exercise.  It  is 
furnished  by  noting  the  vast  multitude  of  facts  and 
phenomena  with  which  we  become  aquainted  our 
selves  or  of  which  we  learn  from  others,  and  by  the 
study  of  Natural  Science,  Language,  Mathematics, 
Metaphysics,  History.  In  this  manner  the  Senses, 
Perception,  Memory,  Recollection,  Imagination,  Un 
derstanding  and  Reason  can  all  receive  due  exercise. 
All  this  will  be  clear  to  any  one  who  will  analyze  a 
branch  of  knowledge,  and  learn  how  its  several  parts 
adapt  themselves  to  the  different  intellectual  facul 
ties.  The  intellectual  faculties,  however,  will  not 
grow  stronger  without  effort.  A  merely  passive  state 
of  mind  weakens  it.  We  must  knock  at  the  door  of 
knowledge  before  it  will  be  opened.  We  must 
smite  heavily  the  rock  of  truth  before  its  fountains 
will  gush  forth  their  waters  for  the  thirsting  spirit. 
Nature  everywhere  ignores  the  indolent.  She  eats 
away  their  strength  as  rust  destroys  iron.  Nor  will 
it  do  to  look  on  while  others  work.  No  Sedan 
chairs  can  be  used  for  carrying  passengers  along  the 
paths  that  lead  to  the  temple  of  knowledge.  Labor 
is  the  inexorable  condition  of  success  in  study. 

Knowledge,  too,  is  easy  or  difficult  and  thus  adapts 
itself  both  to  the  weak  and  the  strong.  Many  of 
nature's  facts  and  phenomena  appear  openly  to  the 
senses,  but  more  require  careful  searching  to  find 
them.  She  allows  some  truths  to  lie  loosely  upon 
the  surface,  but  others  she  conceals  deep  down  in 
her  very  heart.  Both  a  child  and  a  philosopher  may 
observe  an  apple  fall  from  a  tree,  or  a  soap-bubble 


56  METHODS   OF   IJSTSTKUCTION. 

float  away  in  the  sunlight,  and  each  iind  suitable 
intellectual  exercise  in  so  doing.  The  great  is  every 
where  found  in  the  little,  and  the  little  in  the  great, 
that  the  intellect  in  its  several  stages  of  growth  may 
have  exercise  proper  in  kind  and  quantity. 

2.  EDUCATIONAL  MEANS  CAN  BE  FOUND  ADAPTED  TO 
GIVE  CULTURE  TO  EVERY  CAPABILITY  OF  MIND.  —  A 
plant  is  beautifully  adapted  to  the  circumstances 
that  surround  its  growth.  It  needs  mineral  ele 
ments,  and  its  little  rootlets  seek  and  find  them  in 
the  soil.  It  feeds  on  gases,  and  millions  of  minute 
pore-mouths  suck  them  in.  It  needs  moisture,  and 
the  rain  falls  about  it.  It  needs  heat  and  light, 
and  the  sunshine  warms  its  roots  and  plays  among 
its  branches.  So,  too,  an  adaptation  exists  be 
tween  our  intellectual  wants  and  the  means  of 
supplying  them.  Each  distinct  intellectual  faculty 
requires  a  different  kind  of  culture,  but  educational 
means  are  as  diversified  as  the  wants  they  are 
intended  to  supply. 

We  have  senses,  and  there  are  things  to  be  seen, 
and  heard,  and  handled.  We  have  perception,  and 
there  are  objects  and  phenomena  that  constantly, 
and  on  every  hand,  attract  observation  and  courl 
examination.  We  have  memory,  and  the  world  is 
full  of  things  to  be  remembered — the  object-mattei 
of  science  and  art;  the  words  of  language,  the  facts 
of  history,  the  products  of  all  that  the  mind  does. 
We  have  recollection  and  imagination,  and  the 
stores  of  the  memory  must  be  brought  forth,  held 
up  for  contemplation,  and  represented  in  new  forms, 
We  have  understanding,  and  the  whole  work  of 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  57 

elaborating  systems  of  science — forming  classes, 
making  generalizations,  and  demonstrating  princi 
ples,  must  be  done.  We  have  reason,  and  we  know 
there  is  something  beyond  the  conditioned,  universal, 
and  necessary  principles,  and  a  Being  with  infinite 
perfections,  God.  If  any  intellectual  power  lacks 
in  discipline,  it  is  not  because  means  are  wanting 
adapted  to  the  purpose. 

3.  No  GOD-CONSTITUTED  DIFFERENCE  OF  MENTAL  CON 
STITUTION  IS  LEFT  UNPROVIDED  FOR  IN  THE  WEALTH  OF 

MEANS  WHICH  THE  CREATOR  INTENDED  TO  BE  USED  FOR 
THE  PURPOSES  OF  EDUCATION.  —  All  men  are  not 
naturally  alike  in  taste  or  talent.  To  discharge  the 
various  duties  of  life  different  kinds  of  ability  are 
required.  Unity  in  diversity  seems  to  be  Nature's 
greatest  maxim. 

If  God  made  men  unlike,  did  He  provide  means 
for  preserving  the  difference  ?  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  some  men  are  peculiarly  fitted  to  observe  and 
investigate  the  works  of  nature,  and  to  build  up 
systems  of  natural  science ;  and  is  not  their  field  of 
labor  boundless  ?  There  are  men  who  seem  spe 
cially  endowed  with  a  talent  for  Mathematics,  can 
they  ever  exhaust  the  laws  which  may  be  evolved 
from  number  and  form?  There  are  men  whose 
penetrating  glance  can  pierce  the  shifting  phe 
nomena  of  sense,  and  perceive  the  very  foundations 
and  ends  of  things,  Philosophers — and  surely  things 
have  foundations  and  ends.  Are  there  no  materials 
left  out  of  which  Poetry  and  Music  can  be  made  ? 
acne  that  the  artist  can  express  on  canvas  or  in 


68  METBx  DS   OF    INSTRUCTION 

marble?     Has  Gcxl  so  fully  revealed  Himself  that 
prophecies  are  no  longer  possible? 

The  answer  to  gll  these  questions  is  easy.  The 
creation  is  infinite  in  all  directions.  No  one  man 
can  explore  the  whole  of  it.  E"o  one  man  can  pei 
form  all  the  world's  work.  If  all  men  were  simi 
larly  endowed  with  talents,  or  gifted  with  tastes, 
there  must  come  a  time  when  all  progress  would 
cease.  Divide  labor,  let  each  do  what  he  can  do 
best,  give  all  employment,  and  this  field  of  life  will 
bring  forth  its  most  abundant  harvests.  With  such 
an  arrangement  need  any  one  be  idle  ?  JsTot  until 
the  finite  becomes  the  infinite. 

Much  is  said  in  works  on  education  in  regard  to 
the  harmonious  culture  of  our  mental  faculties.  If 
it  is  merely  meant  that  all  our  faculties  should 
receive  due  culture,  the  sentiment  is  faultless ;  but 
if  it  is  meant  that  each  individual  should  receive  an 
even  culture,  that  the  powers  of  his  mind  should 
be  balanced,  that  the  chief  business  of  education 
consists  in  suppressing  talents  wdiere  talents  have 
been  given,  and  attempting  to  create  talents  where 
talents  have  been  denied,  I  must  be  permitted  to 
enter  my  protest  against  the  doctrine.  The  interests 
of  science  and  the  duties  of  life  no  less  than  our 
diversity  of  gifts  forbid  it. 

"What  is  above  said  applies  to  the  difference  re 
quired  in  the  education  of  the  sexes.  Individuals 
may  learn  whatever  they  are  capable  of  learning. 
The  tastes  and  talents  God  gave  to  women  they  may 
use  as  well  as  men  ;  and  just  so  far  as  their  tastea 
and  talents  differ  from  those  of  men'  should  their 
education  differ.  It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  all 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  69 

women  can  find  fit  food  for  their  mental  appetites 
as  well  as  all  men. 

4.  NATURE  PRESENTS  TO  THE  INQUIRER,  FIRST  THE 
CONCRETE,  AND  THEN  THE  ABSTRACT  ;  FIRST  THINGS,  AND 
THEN  WORDS  OR  SIGNS  FOR  THINGS  ;  FIRST  FACTS  AND 
PHENOMENA,  AND  THEN  LAWS  AND  PRINCIPLES;  FIRST 
WHOLES,  AND  THEN  PARTS  AND  COLLECTIONS  OF  WHOLES 

— THUS  INDICATING  TO  THE  TEACHER  THE  PROPRIETY  OF 

CONFINING  HIS  ELEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  MAINLY  TO 
LESSONS  ON  OBJECTS  WHOSE  PROPERTIES  CAN  BE 
DIRECTLY  PERCEIVED,  FOR  THE  PURPOSE  OF  MAKING  THE 
EXPERIENCE  OF  THE  YOUNG  AS  EXTENSIVE  AS  POSSI 
BLE. — The  perceptive  are  relatively  the  strongest 
intellectual  faculties  possessed  by  the  young,  and 
they  are  the  first  to  be  made  use  of  in  the  search 
for  knowledge. 

Nature  presents  to  the  inquirer  first  the  concrete 
and  then  the  abstract.  This  is  true  of  course  with 
respect  to  all  objects  of  Natural  History;  but  it  is 
also  true  of  the  so-called  abstract  sciences.  The 
first  step  in  Arithmetic  was  counting  the  fingers  or 
counting  something  else.  The  first  step  in  Geometry 
was  the  measurement  of  land.  The  first  Music  was 
the  song  of  birds  or  the  tones  of  the  human  voice. 

Nature  presents  first  things  and  then  words,  or 
signs  for  things.  All  that  we  know  of  the  origin  of 
language  goes  to  confirm  this  view.  Many  corres 
pondences  are  found  in  the  primitive  languages, 
and  some  in  all  languages,  between  the  sounds  of 
words  and  the  things  signified  by  them.  Qualities 
were  noticed  and  then  names  applied.  The  Bible 


60  MLTHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

tolls  us,  too,  that  animals  were  brought  before  Adam- 
to  see  what  he  would  call  them. 

Nature  presents  first  facts  and  phenomena,  and 
then  laws  and  principles.  The  genesis  of  all  science 
is  confirmatory  of  this  statement.  It  is  true  that 
when  a  science  reaches  a  certain  stage  of  advance 
ment  and  its  laws  and  principles  become  well- 
established,  they  can  be  applied  to  new  facts  and 
phenomena;  but  science  in  its  earlier  stages  of 
growth  is  now  alone  in  question. 

Nature  presents  first  wholes  and  then  parts  and 
collections  of  wholes.  The  whole  of  an  object 
must  be  observed  before  it  can  be  analyzed  into 
parts ;  and  the  mind  must  pass  from  one  individual 
whole  to  others  before  it  can  make  a  synthesis  of 
the  collection. 

If  these  statements  are  true,  they  must  have  an 
important  bearing  upon  elementary  education.  Na 
ture  plainly  indicates  the  first  steps  in  learning.  To 
attempt  to  teach  in  contravention  of  her  plan  is  to 
damage  the  intellect  under  training,  and  to  lay  a 
foundation  upon  which  science  can  never  rest 
securely.  The  great  aim  of  elementary  education 
should  be  to  communicate  the  elements  of  know 
ledge — to  make  more  extensive  the  experience  of 
the  young. 

5.  NATURE  OPENS  UP  HER  TRUTHS  IN  A  CERTAIN 
ORDER  AND  THAT  ORDER  MUST  BE  FOLLOWED  IN  INVESTI 
GATION  AND  STUDY. — The  elements  of  all  knowledge 
are  cotemporary  in  origin.  A  child  may  begin  the 
study  of  all  branches  of  science,  for  in  their  begin 
nings  all  seem  equally  simple.  Progress  in  science 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  61 

is  from  a  united  base  to  divided  branches,  or  from 
the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous.  The  ob 
servations  a  child  may  make  as  he  stands  in  a  garden 
or  walks  through  a  meadow  will  serve  as  the  first 
steps  in  all  kinds  of  learning.  From  this  root 
several  trunks  spring,  and  divide  and  subdivide  like 
the  branches  of  a  tree. 

The  object-matter  of  knowledge  is  arranged  like 
successive  strata,  that  beneath  not  being  approch- 
able  except  by  passing  through  that  above.  First, 
we  find  qualities  and  facts  disconnected  and  frag 
mentary.  They  lie  upon  the  surface.  Deeper  down 
we  find  other  facts  and  other  qualities.  Second,  we 
notice  the  likeness  and  unlikeness  of  things.  They 
appear  to  us  in  clusters  or  classes.  The  differences 
we  notice  first  are  very  apparent,  but  identity  and 
difference  extend  down  to  the  very  heart  of  things. 
Third,  we  begin  to  see  that  particulars  can  be  re 
duced  to  generals,  that  individuals  belong  to  classes, 
and  species  to  genera,  that  many  phenomena  are  the 
result  of  a  single  law.  ~No  limits  can  be  fixed  to 

O 

this  work.  Fourth,  seeing  effects,  we  search  for 
causes.  We  inquire  why?  and  wherefore?  We 
construct  syllogisms  and  carry  on  processes  of  rea 
soning.  No  end  can  be  found  to  the  chain  of  causa 
tion.  Fifth,  we  realize  that  something  exists  that 
~  no  process  of  reasoning  can  reach — that  we  can  think 
things  that  we  could  never  know  by  experience; 
that  we  can  catch  glimpses,  at  least,  of  the  infinite, 
the  pure,  and  the  perfect.  Here  we  find  God,  and 
our  work  is  done. 

I  cannot  claim  that  what  has  just  been  said  is  an 
accurate  expression  of  the  order  in  which  the  mind 


62  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

proceeds  in  acquainting  itself  with  the  object-matter 
of  knowledge,  for  I  well  know  that  more  or  fewer 
steps  may  be  made ;  but  I  think  it  will  convey  to 
the  mind  of  the  reader  with  sufficient  clearness  the 
great  educational  truth  under  consideration. 

The  contents  of  a  text-book  must  be  arranged  in 
accordance  with  the  law  now  stated.  In  commenc 
ing  the  study  of  a  branch  of  learning,  it  Is  clear 
that  there  is  a  first  step  which  should  be  taken,  a 
second  that  ought  to  follow,  and  this  introduces  a 
third;  and  so  a  whole  subject,  to  be  properly  studied, 
must  be  made  up  of  a  series  of  logically  connected 
parts.  A  pupil  enters  school  knowing  something. 
The  teacher  must  acquaint  himself  with  what  his 
pupil  knows,  and  then  detach  from  what  is  unknown 
to  him  appropriate  matter,  arid  link  the  known  and 
the  unknown  together. 

6.  THE  EMPIRICAL  AND  THE  RATIONAL  SCIENCES 
REQUIRE  DIFFERENT  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. — 
Knowledge  has  two  sources,  the  Senses  and  the 
Reason.  All  science  based  upon  the  evidence  of 
experience  may  be  call  Empirical  science,  and  all 
science  based  upon  the  intuitions  of  the  Reason  may 
be  called  Rational  science.  Methods  of  teaching 
these  two  classes  of  sciences  are  different. 

An  Empirical  science  differs  from  a  Rational 
science  in  its  data,  in  its  end,  and  in  its  processes  of 
reasoning.  The  data  of  an  Empirical  science  arc 
facts ;  its  end  is  the  attainment  of  general  laws,  and 
its  processes  of  reasoning  are  inductive.  The  data  of 
a  Rational  science  are  necessary  and  universal  princi 
ples  or  ideas,  its  end  is  the  attainment  of  particular 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  63 

principles,  or  less  general  ideas,  and  its  processes  of 
reasoning  are  deductive.  Chemistry  is  an  Empirical 
science,  and  Geometry,  including  its  axioms  and 
definitions,  has  the  form  of  a  Rational  science;  to 
those  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  both  no  further 
exposition  is  necessary. 

There  are  two  modes  by  which  an  Empirical 
science  may  be  taught.  By  the  first,  facts  are  pre 
sented,  and  then  the  laws  that  may  be  inferred  from 
them.  By  the  second,  an  hypothesis  may  be 
assumed,  and  afterwards  search  may  be  made  for 
the  facts  by  which  it  can  be  tested ;  or  laws,  fully 
established,  may  be  stated  to  the  unlearned  in  the 
form  of  propositions,  and  the  facts  upon  which  they 
rest  adduced  to  prove  them.  In  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  an  Empirical  science,  it  is  possible  to  an 
ticipate  the  existence  of  unascertained  facts  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  general  laws  which  must  control 
them.  In  the  first  mode  there  are  given  facts  to 
find  laws,  and  in  the  second  there  are  given  laws, 
either  ascertained  or  hypothecated,  to  find  facts. 

There  are  likewise  two  modes  of  teaching  a 
Rational  science.  The  necessary  and  universal  prin 
ciples  which  form  the  data  of  such  a  science  may  be 
first  communicated,  and  this  may  be  followed  by 
the  demonstration  of  the  particular  truths  contained 
in  them.  This  is  the  first  mode.  A  particular  truth 
or  principle  may  be  assumed,  and  the  proof  of  it 
be  sought  for  in  the  necessary  and  universal  princi 
ples  of  which  it  is  a  part.  This  is  the  second  mode. 
The  first  mode  consists  in  the  evolution  of  the  con 
tents  of  axioms,  definitions,  intuitions  of  the  reason; 
the  second  consists  in  demonstrating  particular 


64  METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

truths,  by  showing  their  conformity  with  universal 
and  necessary  truth. 

The  two  modes  of  teaching  an  Empirical  science 
differ  from  the  two  modes  of  teaching  a  Rational 
science.  Take  the  modes  first  named  with  reference 
to  each,  and  compare  them.  The  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  facts  is  the  Senses,  the  source  of  our 
knowledge  of  universal  and  necessary  principles  is 
the  Reason.  When  we  infer  general  laws  from  par 
ticular  facts  we  proceed  in  one  way,  inductively;  hut 
when  we  attempt  to  analyze  the  pure  products  of 
the  Reason  we  proceed  in  quite  another,  deduc 
tively.  The  conclusion  in  one  case  is  hut  the  gen 
eralization  of  experience  and  cannot  extend  beyond 
the  facts  observed,  while  in  the  other  the  conclusion 
is  exact  and  positive  knowledge. 

The  same  differences  will  appear  if  we  compare 
the  two  modes  last  mentioned.  Starting  out  with 
an  hypothesis  or  an  ascertained  law  in  Empirical 
Science  may  be  the  same  as  commencing  with  the 
assumption  of  a  particular  truth  in  a  Rational 
Science,  but  here  the  similarity  between  the  two 
modes  of  procedure  ends,  for  proving  a  principle 
by  facts  differs  very  materially  from  demonstrating 
it  by  reasoning. 

7.  THE  FIRST  FORM  OF  INSTRUCTION  MUST  BB 
QUALITATIVE,  NEXT  QUANTITATIVE,  AND  THEN  A  COM 
PARISON  OF  RELATIONS. — Things  are  known  only  by 
their  qualities.  They  are  the  Alphabet  of  nature, 
They  are  the  medium  of  introduction  between  thai 
which  is  to  know  and  that  which  is  to  be  known. 

The  first  form  of  instruction  must  be  qualitative. 


CONDITIONING   PEINCIPLES.  65 

Mark  how  a  child  learns.  He  perceives  that  things 
are  hard  or  soft,  large  or  small,  few  or  many,  long 
or  short,  tough  or  brittle,  hot  or  cold,  white  or  black, 
red  or  yellow,  heavy  or  light,  sweet  or  sour,  without 
at  all  stopping  to  measure  their  several  degrees. 
He  distinguishes  objects  from  one  another  by  their 
kind  of  qualities.  He  will  learn  for  instance  to 
distinguish  a  horse  from  a  cow  before  he  can  dis- 

o 

tinguish  horses  or  cows  from  one  another.  The 
same  thing  may  be  inferred  from  the  language  of  a 
child,  as  his  first  speech  is  made  up  of  words  which 
stand  for  man.  dog,  clock,  cat,  &c.,  &c.  He  even  uses 
pa  and  ma  in  a  general  sense.  All  this  goes  to  prove 
the  truth  that  stands  at  the  head  of  this  paragraph, 
and  suggests  lessons  on  objects,  lessons  on  form, 
consistency,  color,  and  the  qualities  of  things  gen 
erally. 

The  second  form  which  instruction  should  take 
is  quantitative.  After  having  observed  a  quality 
we  soon  begin  to  limit  it — to  limit  it  in  space,  in 
time,  and  in  degree.  We  inquire  how  large  or  how 
small  ?  how  long  or  how  short?  how  much  or  how 
little  ?  We  invent  weights,  measures,  coins.  It  is 
evident  that  to  learn  quantities  requires  closer,  more 
precise,  better  defined  thought  than  to  observe  quali 
ties  ;  and  such  thought  is  necessary  to  build  up  a 
?»cience.  When  children  have  learned  the  qualities 
ryf  objects,  let  them  be  made  to  attend  to  them  more 
Closely,  to  quantify  them.  They  should  not  merely 
name  the  form  of  an  object,  but  tell  its  length, 
yreadth  and  thickness ;  not  merely  say  that  a  thing 
IB  large  or  small  but  state  how  large  or  how  small ; 
they  should  be  taught  to  measure  in  ounces  and 
6* 


OtJ  METHODS   OF    INSTRUCTION". 

pounds,  in  pints  and  quarts,  in  shades,  in  degrees, 
and  in  numbers. 

After  instruction  has  passed  through  the  qualita 
tive  and  quantitative  stages,  its  further  progress 
must  be  by  a  comparison  of  relations.  "We  discri 
minate  qualities  and  measure  quantities  by  compari 
son,  but  this  kind  of  comparison  is  not  a  comparison 
of  relations.  We  employ  such  a  comparison  when 
we  compare  causes  and  effects,  means  and  ends,  and 
the  inherent  identities  and  differences  of  things ;  and 
such  a  comparison  is  only  possible  when  we  are  in 
possession  of  the  qualities  and  quantities  used  as  data 
in  our  reasoning.  All  works  of  science,  properly  so 
called,  are  the  results  of  a  comparison  of  relations,  and 
the  teacher  has,  therefore,  ample  material  for  impart 
ing  the  kind  of  instruction  implied  in  the  premises. 

8.  AS  CONDITIONED  BY  THE  EELATIONS  OF  THE 
OBJECT-MATTER  OF  KNOWLEDGE,  METHODS  OF  TEACH 
ING  MUST  BE  INDUCTIVE  OR  DEDUCTIVE,  ANALYTICAL 
OR  SYNTHETICAL. — The  whole  objective  world  is  made 
up  of  existences  and  the  laws  which  control  them. 
Science  is  made  up  of  such  of  these  as  men  have 
been  able  to  observe  and  find  out.  Induction  means 
ascending  from  facts  to  principles,  and  this  method 
may  be  adopted  in  teaching. 

When  in  the  possession  of  the  generalizations  of 
induction,  we  can  use  them  in  the  interpretation  of 
new  facts  and  phenomena,  and  this  process  is  some 
times  culled  deduction,  but  it  is  rather  a  part  of 
induction  and  is  so  considered  here.  No  science 
can  be  well  taught  without  its  use. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  intuitions  c^the  Reason 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  67 

enable  us  to  apprehend  certain  necessary  and  uni 
versal  principles  and  that  these  contain  other  prin 
ciples  embodied  in  them.  Deduction,  as  I  under 
stand  it,  is  the  evolution  of  particular  principles 
from  necessary  and  universal  principles,  and  as  such 
must  be  the  method  of  study  in  all  the  Rational 
Sciences.  Properly  there  is  no  induction  in  Mathe 
matics  or  Logic,  and  surely  there  is  none  in  Ethics 
or  ./Esthetics. 

As  the  inductive  is  the  only  method  applicable 
to  the  Empirical  Sciences,  and  the  deductive  is  the 
only  method  applicable  to  the  Rational  Sciences, 
and  as  all  science  may  be  included  in  these  classes, 
it  follows  that  methods  of  teaching  must  be  either 
inductive  or  deductive. 

Apart  from  mere  perception  or  intuition,  every 
operation  we  are  capable  of  performing  upon  the 
object-matter  of  knowledge  maybe  generalized  into 
the  processes  of  multiplication  and  division.  In  our 
investigations  of  nature,  she  never  presents  herself 
to  us  in  her  minutest  subdivisions.  With  solvents, 
dissecting-knives,  and  microscopes  we  must  search 
for  these.  Earth,  water,  air,  animal  and  vegetable 
organisms  are  made  to  yield  up  their  hidden  ele 
ments.  This  is  the  process  of  division  or  analysis. 

Nature  does  not  anywhere,  to  our  view,  complete 
herself.  She  ignores  fractions.  We  see  a  number 
of  her  animals,  her  plants,  her  rocks,  her  stars,  and 
infer  the  rest.  We  laboriously  search  out  laws  and 
truths  and  combine  what  we  discover  into  systems 
oi  science ;  but,  at  best,  we  know  little  in  com 
parison  with  what  remains  unknown.  Science 
grows ;  every  day  adds  something  to  the  world's 


68  METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

Btock  cf  knowledge.     This  is  the  process  of  multi 
plication,  or  synthesis. 

All  knowledge,  as  presented  in  books  for  study, 
is  a  synthesis.  The  materials  of  which  such  know 
ledge  is  made  up,  however,  must  have  been  obtained 
mainly  by  means  of  analysis.  If  in  teaching  a 
science  we  follow  the  method  by  which  it  grew  up, 
the  process  must  be  synthetical,  but  if  we  take  it  as 
it  is,  and  divide  and  subdivide  it  into  parts  until  we 
find  the  elements  upon  which  it  is  based,  the  process 
is  analytical.  Both  processes  are  equally  legitimate, 
and  both  should  be  used  in  almost  every  lesson. 
Authors  of  text-books  are  accustomed  to  apply  the 
terms  analytical  and  synthetical  to  their  works  with 
very  little  judgment.  Both  analysis  and  synthesis 
must  be  made  use  of  in  writing  a  text-book  on  any 
subject,  and  in  teaching  it,  and  no  other  methods 
having  the  same  aim  are  possible. 

9.  THE  OBJECT-MATTER  OF  KNOWLEDGE,  AS  n 
EXISTS  IN  NATURE,  is  so  CONNECTED  AND  ARRANGED 
AS  TO  FACILITATE  ITS  ACQUISITION. — The  suggestive 
powers  of  the  mind  and  the  connections  of  matter 
correlate.  We  can  imagine  a  world  with  its  parts 
confused,  disjointed,  fragmentary.  In  ours  complete 
isolation  is  unknown.  The  motto  e  pluribus  unum 
could  nowhere  be  so  well  applied  as  to  the  universe. 

It  is  the  connections  and  relations  of  natural 
objects  that  render  science  possible.  Surely  there 
is  a  foundation  in  the  things  themselves  for  the  for 
mation  of  classes,  genera,  and  species.  If  a  student 
makes  the  acquaintance  of  one  fact,  that  will  intro 
duce  him  to  another,  and  so  on  in  endless  succession. 


CONDITIONING    PRINCIPLES.  69 

Nature  is  arranged  like  a  suit  of  rooms,  each  with  a 
door  opening  to  the  next,  A  student  in  sympathy 
with  nature  hears  voices  calling  him,  arid  sees  hands 
beckoning  him  on  at  every  step  in  his  progress^  and 
before  him  ever  floats  "the  banner  with  the  strange 
device,  excelsior." 

If  the  object-matter  of  knowledge,  as  it  exists  in 
nature,  is  so  connected  and  arranged  as  to  facilitate 
its  acquisition,  so  may  it  be  in  text-books.  A  text 
book  ought  to  present  a  subject  in  its  natural  o^der 
and  connections.  One  point,  or  one  topic,  or  one 
lesson  ought  to  suggest  the  next.  It  may  be  well  in 
teaching  sometimes  to  put  questions  concerning 
things  apart  from  their  connections,  but  it  is  best  to 
first  teach  them  in  their  connections. 


10.  THE  MATTER  OF  KNOWLEDGE,  AS  IT  LIES  IN 
MEMORY,  HAS  CONNECTIONS  AND  RELATIONS  WHICH 
INCREASE  ITS  AVAILABILITY.  —  If  the  connections 
and  relations  of  knowledge  are  observed  in  acquiring 
it,  it  will  preserve  these  connections  and  relations 
as  it  lies  in  the  memory,  and  the  same  conditions 
that  rendered  its  acquisition  more  easy,  will  also  aid 
in  making  it  available.  In  addition,  however,  there 
are  other  laws  which  apply  to  acquired  knowledge 
that  do  not  apply  to  the  objective  realities  from 
which  it  was  derived.  Things  originally  discon 
nected  or  unrelated,  may  have  been  learned  at  the 
same  time,  or  in  such  way  as  to  link  them  together 
in  the  memory.  Besides,  the  laws  of  association 
seem  constantly  operative  in  assorting  the  materials 
of  knowledge  as  they  exist  in  the  mind.  They  bring 
like  things  together,  and  separate  things  that  are 


TO  METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

unlike.  A  well  disciplined  memory  has  a  place  for 
everything,  and  keeps  everything  in  its  place. 

If  the  object-matter  of  knowledge,  as  it  lies  in  the 
memory,  has  such  connections  and  relations  as  have 
now  been  pointed  out,  they  must  make  it  more 
available.  A  man  of  business  can  settle  an  account 
in  a  few  moments,  it  may  be,  if  all  the  papers  relat 
ing  to  it  are  kept  together,  but,  if  they  are  scattered 
about,  hours  may  be  occupied  in  doing  the  same 
work,  and  even  then  it  may  be  done  inaccurately. 
It  is  just  so  with  the  materials  of  knowledge  as  they 
lie  in  the  memory.  These  materials  are  too  vast  to 
be  dealt  with  as  individual  things,  they  can  only  be 
made  available  to  the  powers  which  recall  and  hold 
them  up  for  contemplation,  by  forming  them  into 
trains,  arranging  them  in  clusters,  uniting  them  in 
series,  or  associating  them  in  classes.  Teachers, 
who  would  not  see  much  of  their  labor  lost,  must 
conduct  their  work  mindful  of  these  facts. 

11.  NEW  DISCOVERIES  IN  SCIENCE  AND  NEW  INVEN 
TIONS  IN  THE  ARTS  ARE  STILL  POSSIBLE,  AND  METHODS 

OF  INSTRUCTION  SHOULD  PROMPT  THE  YOUNG  TO  MAKE 
THEM. — Discoveries  are  constantly  being  made  in 
all  departments  of  science.  Never  before  was  the 
progress  of  science  so  rapid.  The  harvest  seems 
ripe,  and  every  reaper  is  blessed  with  a  share  of 
fruit.  And  still  all  that  has  been  done  is  little  in 
comparison  with  what  remains  to  be  done. 

What  is  true  in  the  field  of  science  is  true  also 
in  the  field  of  art.  It  may  be  that  the  same  ray  id 
progress  is  not  apparent  with  respect  to  the  Fino 
Arts,  but  it  is  especially  manifest  in  all  departments 


CONDITIONING    PRINCIPLES.  71 

of  the  Mechanic  and  Useful  Arts ;  and  still  e\?ery 
day  human  ingenuity  brings  to  light  some  new 
invention. 

I  take  it  that  education  means  something  more 
than  merely  conning  the  facts  and  repeating  the 
reasonings  of  text-books.  If  properly  instructed, 
pupils  will  desire  to  look  beyond  what  they  have 
been  taught,  or  what  they  have  simply  learned. 
They  will  feel  that  work  has  been  left  for  them  to 
do,  and  they  will  desire  to  do  it.  The  highest  aim 
of  teaching  is  not  to  store  the  mind  with  the  ac 
cumulated  knowledge  of  ages,  but  to  arm  it  with 
energy  and  skill ;  not  to  enable  pupils  merely  to 
solve  problems  in  Mathematics,  construe  sentences 
in  Grammar,  or  answer  questions  in  Philosophy, 
but  to  inspire  them  with  a  love  of  study,  to  awaken 
in  their  minds  an  animating,  life-giving  power,  that 
does  not  rest  satisfied  with  present  attainments  but 
is  ever  striving  to  open  up  new  truths,  to  express 
new  beauty,  or  to  contrive  new  ways  of  lessening 
labor  or  effecting  good. 

Few,  if  any,  great  thinkers  were  ever  made  by 
books.  A  mathematician  very  inferior  to  Newton 
or  La  Place  can  follow  the  reasoning  of  the  Principia 
or  the  Mecanique  Celeste.  Bacon  and  Locke  are 
read  by  school-boys  who  talk  flippantly  of  the  In- 
cluctive  Philosophy  and  the  doctrine  of  Innate  Ideas. 
When  once  conquered,  nature's  noblest  truths  grow 
comparatively  tame.  To  secure  the  best  mental 
discipline,  we  teach  too  much  at  second-hand.  We 
rely  too  much  upon  books.  We  suffer  the  mind's 
productive  powers  to  lie  too  nearly  dormant.  We 
follow  too  closely  in  the  paths  beaten  by  others  to 


72  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

gain  the  advantage  of  that  vigorous  self- thinking, 
which  is  necessary  to  wrench  new  truth  from  nature. 
Those  methods  of  teaching  should  he  adopted  which 
would  throw  pupils  most  upon  their  own  resources, 
which  would  call  out  all  the  originality  that  they 
may  possess,  which  would  lead  them  to  repeat  the 
experiments  and  verify  the  conclusions  of  others, 
and  urge  them  on  to  add  their  mite  to  the  sum  of 
human  knowledge  and  human  ingenuity. 

12.  NATURE  EVERYWHERE  COURTS  INVESTIGATION  BY 
A.  SYSTEM  OF  ATTRACTIONS  WHICH  ENLIST  THE  ATTEN 
TION,  AND  INDUCE  INCREASED  ACTIVITY  IN  THE  POWERS 

BY  WHICH  WE  REMEMBER,  REFLECT,  REASON  AND 
PHILOSOPHIZE;  AND,  THEREFORE,  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
SHOULD  BE  SUGGESTIVE. — Pupils  should  not  be  made 
mere  passive  recipients  of  knowledge.  Many  teachers 
tell  too  much.  They  communicate  facts,  answer 
questions,  solve  problems,  and  their  pupils  receive 
their  instruction  in  blank  wonder  or  stupid  indiffer 
ence.  With  such  teaching  knowledge  is  merely 
received  like  grain  into  a  granary  or  freight  into 
the  hold  of  a  ship.  Such  teachers  are  like  apothe 
caries  or  grocers,  and  simply  deal  out  their  stock  in 
trade  to  their  waiting  customers.  At  the  best  they 
can  only  store  the  memory  with  facts  which  must 
lie  there,  cumbrous,  undigested,  and  useless. 

The  search  for  knowledge  should  not  be  charac 
terized  by  a  blind  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
We  have  just  seen  that  a  teacher  may  aid  his  pupils 
too  much,  it  is  just  as  true  that  he  may  aid  them 
too  little.  A  due  regard  to  the  economy  of  the 
mental  forces  will  not  admit  of  their  useless  expendi- 


CONDITIONING   PRINCIPLES.  73 

lure.  Pupils  without  direction  as  to  what  or  how 
lo  study  may  waste  their  time  in  fruitless  efforts. 
A  traveller  in  a  strange  city  without  a  guide  may 
easily  lose  his  strength  in  ill-directed  efforts  to  find 
his  way,  so  a  timely  hint  from  a  teacher  may  relieve 
a  pupil  from  a  difficulty  that  is  wearing  away  his 
time  and  wearying  his  patience  without  conducing 
to  any  useful  end.  The  teacher  can  guide  his  pupil 
without  carrying  him  along,  he  can  direct  his  work 
without  performing  it,  he  can  pilot  his  bark  without 
doing  all  the  rowing. 

Progress  in  study  should  not  be  merely  mechani 
cal.  It  is  easily  possible  for  pupils  to  go  over  studies 
without  learning  them.  Their  progress  is  measured 
too  often  by  the  quantity  of  the  work  looked  at, 
rather  than  the  quality  of  the  work  done.  Some 
teachers  are  at  great  pains  to  relieve  their  pupils 
from  the  trouble  of  thinking.  They  are  constantly 
watchful  to  remove  every  difficulty  from  their  path 
way,  and,  by  leading  questions,  make  them  seem  to 
know  that  of  which  in  reality  they  are  ignorant.  If 
learning  could  be  obtained  in  this  way,  the  road  to 
it  would  be  a  "  royal "  one — a  kind  of  rail-road, 
ready-graded  and  well  provided  with  cars  and  mo 
tive  power,  to  transport  swiftly  along  those  who  are 
in  search  of  knowledge,  and  who  meanwhile  can  sit 
or  sleep. 

In  opposition  to  those  methods  of  teaching  which 
make  the  condition  of  the  learner  one  of  passive 
reception,  one  of  blind  activity,  or  one  of  mechanical 
progression,  we  say  that  methods  of  teaching  should 
be  suggestive — should  prompt  pupils  to  earnest  self- 
exertion.  Facts  should  be  communicated  in  such  a 


74  METHODS    OP   INSTRUCTION. 

manner  as  to  suggest  other  facts;  one  effort  in 
reasoning,  stimulate  to  other  efforts;  one  trial  of 
strength,  induce  other  trials;  one  difficulty  over 
come,  excite  an  ambition  to  triumph  over  other 
difficulties.  The  teacher  should  create  interest  in 
study,  incite  curiosity,  promote  inquiry,  prompt  in 
vestigation,  inspire  self-confidence,  give  hints,  make 
suggestions,  tempt  pupils  on  to  try  their  strength 
and  test  their  skill. 

Nature  teaches  according  to  the  suggestive  method. 
The  phenomena  of  animal  and  vegetable  organisms 
of  earth,  and  air,  and  sky,  are  so  many  hints  to  in 
duce  man  to  investigate  her  mysteries.  Grecian 
artists  take  a  hint  from  plants  and  trees,  and  Doric 
and  Corinthian  columns  adorn  their  country's  proud 
est  cities ;  Newton  takes  a  hint  from  a  falling  apple, 
and  the  ponderous  planets  roll  in  harmonious  gran 
deur  about  the  universe,  in  obedience  to  his  law  of 
gravitation ;  "Watt  takes  a  hint  from  a  hissing  tea- 
urn,  and  we  have  the  steam-engine;  Hugh  Miller 
takes  a  hint  from  the  curious  fossils  which  his  boyish 
pranks  exhumed,  and  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  his 
loved  Scotland  spreads  forth  its  treasures  in  a  voice 
so  eloquent  that  the  whole  world  listens. 

Nature  teaches  according  to  the  suggestive  method. 
She  has  her  picture  galleries,  and  her  galleries  of 
statues,  her  stupendous  architecture,  her  rich  mu 
seums,  and  her  immense  zoological  and  botanic 
gardens;  to  all  the  enjoyments  of  which  she  invites 
men  eagerly,  freely,  without  money  and  without 
price. 

Nature  teaches  according  to  the  suggestive  method. 
She  excites  curiosity,  courts  investigation,  asks  to 


CONDITIONING-   PRINCIPLES.  76 

have  her  riddles  read ;  sometimes,  silently  persuad 
ing  the  willing  to  examine  her  treasures,  and  some 
times  compelling  the  indolent  to  study  her  laws  by 
making  obedience  to  them  essential  to  their  well- 
being. 

One  of  my  best  lessons  in  teaching  was  taught  me 
by  a  robin.  It  was  in  my  garden,  and  the  mother- 
robin  was  teaching  her  young  brood  to  fly.  A  little 
robin  sat  upon  the  nest  and  seemed  afraid  to  move. 
The  mother-bird  came  and  stood  by  its  side,  stroked 
it  with  her  bill,  and  then  hopped  to  a  neighboring 
twig  and  stood  awhile  as  if  to  induce  the  little  bird 
to  follow.  Again  and  again  she  repeated  her  caresses, 
and  then  hopped  nimbly  to  the  same  twig.  At 
length  the  little  bird  gained  courage,  and  to  the 
great  joy  of  its  mother,  shook  its  weak  wings,  started 
and  stood  by  her  side.  Another  more  distant  twig 
was  now  selected,  and  further  effort  brought  the 
little  bird  to  it  also.  And  so  the  process  was  re 
peated  many  times,  until  the  timid  fledgling  now 
grown  quite  bold  could  sail  away  with  its  mothei 
over  woodlands,  fields,  and  meadows. 

13.  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCIENCES  DOES  NOT  IN  ITSELF 
LEAD  TO  VIRTUE. — Virtue  may  be  defined  as  con 
formity  of  conduct  to  the  rule  of  right,  and  a  virtu 
ous  man  is  one  who  conforms  his  conduct  to  the 
rule  of  right.  But  the  rule  of  right  cannot  be  found 
to  inhere  in  things — neither  in  their  fitness,  their 
harmony,  nor  their  relations.  No  study  of  the 
sciences,  however  profound,  can  reveal  it,  although 
such  study  may  prepare  the  way  for  its  full  appre 
ciation. 


76  METHODS    OF   INSTRUCTION. 

Looking  to  the  same  conclusion  is  the  fact  that 
many  great  scholars  have  "been  bad  men,  and  many 
good  men  have  been  poor  scholars. 

But  while  no  searching  among  the  sciences  will 
discover  the  rule  of  right, we  intuitively  conceive  an 
ideal  of  the  perfection  and  worth  of  the  human 
spirit.  That  there  is  a  real  thing  corresponding  to 
this  ideal  conception  is  most  certain,  although  it 
cannot  be  made  an  object  of  scientific  investigation. 
The  right  is  to  add  perfection  and  worth  to  the 
human  spirit,  and  study  when  pursued  with  this  end 
in  view  is  virtuous.  Those  means  are  virtuous 
which  are  legitimately  used  to  attain  virtuous  ends. 

In  the  light  of  what  has  been  said  it  is  easy  to 
define  the  relation  of  intellectual  education  to  wrong 
doing  or  crime.  The  moral  value  of  an  intellectual 

O 

education  depends  upon  the  end  for  which  it  is 
sought.  It  is  bad  if  sought  for  selfish  or  wicked 
purposes.  It  is  good  if  sought  for  the  purpose  of 
benefiting  mankind,  of  dignifying  the  human 
character,  or  of  honoring  God ;  if  sought  to  gain 
knowledge,  to  attain  discipline — ends  within  itself, 
although  among  its  gettings  one  will  not  find 
wisdom,  yet  its  tendencies  must  be  indirectly  on 
virtue's  side. 

14.  WHAT  WE  CAN  KNOW  is  EVERYWHERE  BOUNDED 

BY    WHAT    MUST    REMAIN    UNKNOWN. An    apple    falls 

from  a  tree  in  a  garden.  A  wise  man,  watching  it, 
is  moved  to  search  for  the  cause.  He  observes  many 
similar  phenomena,  and  ascertains  that  all  of  them 
are  controlled  by  a  common  law.  He  calls  it  the 
law  of  gravitation,  and  finds,  after  careful  investiga 


CONDITIONING    PRINCIPLES.  77 

tion,  that  its  influence  extends  to  the  heavenly 
bodies  and  keeps  the  planets  in  their  orbits.  But 
can  any  one  tell  us  what  the  law  of  gravitation  is  in 
itself?  or  what  may  be  its  cause  ?  A  Geologist  may 
trace  with  indefatigable  labor  the  changes  through 
which  our  earth  has  passed;  he  may  ascend  from 
the  present  condition  of  things  to  that  which  imme 
diately  preceded  it,  and  from  that  to  the  next,  and 
so  on  until  he  finds  the  earth  at  first  to  have  beeu 
without  form  and  void,  and  with  darkness  resting  on 
the  face  of  the  deep,  or  until  it  appears  as  a  vast 
nebulous  mass  of  fluid-matter  floating  in  space,  and 
yet  be  compelled  to  leave  the  whole  mystery  of 
creation  unsolved.  "Who  can  define  space  ?  "Who 
can  measure  time  ?  Who  can  mount  up  to  the 
beginning  of  things,  or  fathom  their  end  ?  Who, 
indeed,  can  take  up  the  ends  of  the  thread  of  his 
own  consciousness? 

What  we  can  know  is  everywhere  bounded  by 
what  must  remain  unknown.  But  what  can  we 
know  ?  We  can  know  all  that  is  finite  and  relative, 
although  we  cannot  number  the  years  it  will  take 
the  race  to  do  it.  We  can  do  more,  we  can  know 
that  there  is  an  infinite,  an  absolute,  a  Grod,  but  what 
they  are  it  is  beyond  our  power  to  find  out.  Phi 
losophy,  mis-called  so,  has  never  been  able  to  exclude 
from  the  human  consciousness  the  idea  that  there 
is  something  that  extends  beyond  all  possible  expe 
rience,  that  back  of  all  phenomena  there  is  some 
actuality  in  which  they  inhere,  or  from  which  they 
spring,  that  there  must  be  a  great  First  Cause.  The 
human  consciousness  is  right.  This  idea  must  be 
answered  by  a  reality.  It  is  impossible  not  to  be- 
7* 


78  METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

lieve  it.  It  must  be  or  nothing  can  be.  But  while 
we  have  firm  ground  for  faith  in  such  a  reality, 
we  can  construct  no  science  of  the  unconditioned. 
What  we  know  must  be  derived  from  Revelation. 
We  see  with  human  vision,  but  cannot  understand 
without  supernatural  assistance. 

If  these  views  are  true  they  will  prevent  an  over 
estimate  of  the  extent  and  value  of  scientific  attain 
ments.  The}^  show  that  the  knowable  has  limits ; 
and  they  show,  too,  that  even  the  basis  of  the 
knowable  is  faith.  Science  will  thus  learn  to  walk 
in  the  humble  sphere  God  designed  for  her. 

They  will  also  furnish  a  ground  upon  which  to 
establish  the  doctrines  of  Religion.  They  are 
equally  at  variance  with  Atheism  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Pantheism  on  the  other.  They  make  certain 
our  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  God,  but  in  limit 
ing  our  knowledge  of  Him  to  this  fact,  they  neces 
sitate  a  Revelation,  and  leave  room  for  the  most 
exalted  faith. 


BUILDING   THE  FOUNDATION. 

THE  Naturalist  finds  classification  necessary  to 
enable  him  to  handle  the  immense  number  of  facts 
which  observation  brings  to  light  in  any  one  branch 
of  science.  It  will  surprise  no  one,  then,  that  in  a 
discussion  concerning  Methods  of  Instruction,  which 
requires  the  whole  object-matter  of  knowledge  to 
be  kept  in  view,  some  systematic  arrangement  of 
the  various  branches  of  knowledge  is  necessary  as  a 
preliminary  condition. 

A  certain  amount  of  knowledge  is  now  in  the 
possession  of  mankind.  If  we  could  determine  the 
process  by  which  it  was  obtained,  or  how  it  grew  up 
in  the  mind,  a  great  step  would  be  taken  in  the  way 
of  ascertaining  a  correct  method  of  teaching,  for 
knowledge  must  be  imparted  in  the  manner  it  can 
best  be  learned.  If  History  tells  anything  on  this 
point,  it  ought  to  be  consulted. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  as  to  what  kind 
of  knowledge  is  first  imparted.  There  is  much 
which  a  child  can  understand,  and  much  that  can 
only  be  comprehended  by  full-grown  men.  In  any 
particular  branch  of  knowledge  some  things  depend 
upon  other  things,  and  thus  necessitate  a  series  of 
connected  steps  in  teaching. 

In  building  a  foundation  for  our  proposed  Methods 
of  Instruction,  it  may  be  well  to  consider: 


80  BUILDING   THE   FOUNDATION. 

I.  The  Classification  of  Knowledge. 
II.  The  Genesis  of  Knowledge. 
in.  The  Order  of  Study. 

The  close  attention  of  the  student  is  invited  to 
the  discussion  of  each  of  these  topics,  as  he  will  find 
therein  a  key  to  much  that  follows : 

I.  The  Classification  of  Knowledge. 

A  classification  of  knowledge  is  possible  from  two 
stand-points.  Its  object-matter  consists  of  the  uni 
versal  whole  of  things.  The  whole  of  things  has  its 
divisions  and  subdivisions  —  its  kingdoms,  classes, 
orders,  genera,  and  species.  It  is  for  Philosophy  to 
find  the  trunk,  and  trace  out  the  branches  of  the 
tree  of  knowledge ;  or  it  is  for  Philosophy  to  fine 
a  principle  of  classification,  and  apply  it.  This 
Btand-point  is  that  of  the  objective  relations  of 
knowledge. 

Laws  control  all  our  mental  operations.  Science 
could  not  result  from  lawless  thought.  If  we  could 
mark  the  point  at  which  the  thinking  process  begins 
and  measure  the  successive  stages  of  its  unfolding, 
we  might  be  able  to  classify  knowledge  from  the 
order  in  which  its  several  parts  are  evolved.  This 
Btand-point  is  that  of  the  subjective  laws  of  thought. 

To  a  mind  with  infinite  powers  a  classification  of 
knowledge  is  possible,  both  from  the  relations  of 
things  and  from  the  laws  of  thought;  but  the 
results  of  one  mode  would  be  the  same  as  of  the 
other.  When  men  attempt  to  classify  knowledge, 
they  must  proceed  in  the  same  way ;  but  their 
imperfect  understanding  of  the  relations  of  things 


THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    KNOWLEDGE.          81 

on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  laws  of  thought  on  the 
other  must  always  render  their  results  incomplete, 
if  it  does  not  cause  them  to  be  erroneous. 

Since  knowledge  is  the  product  of  the  mind 
within  upon  the  world  without,  it  would  seem  that 
there  could  be  formed  a  classification  of  knowledge 
founded  upon  its  historical  development,  which 
would  be  sufficient  at  least  for  practical  purposes, 
combining,  as  it  might,  the  advantages  of  both  the 
preceding  methods;  but  even  here  there  is  little 
agreement  among  those  who  have  attempted  it. 

Before  any  systematic  discussion  respecting  Meth 
ods  of  Instruction  can  take  place,  some  scheme  for 
the  classification  of  knowledge  must  be  adopted; 
and,  seeing  this,  diligent  search  has  been  made  to 
find  one  suited  to  the  purpose.  Many  have  been 
examined,  but  all  of  them  seemed  open  to  serious 
objection.  Comte's  is  the  best  known  classification 
of  the  sciences,  made  with  respect  to  the  matter  of 
which  they  are  composed.  His  classification  is  as 
follows:  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  Physics,  Chem 
istry,  Physiology,  Social  Physics.  The  principle 
which  determines  the  order  of  the  series  is  the 
relative  degree  of  simplicity  in  the  subject-matter. 
Without  naming  the  several  objections  that  may  be 
made  to  this  classification  of  the  sciences  as  such,  it 
is  enough  to  show  its  want  of  adaptation  to  the  pur 
poses  of  teaching  to  say  that  the  mental  nature  of 
no  child  will  admit  his  being  first  taught  Mathe 
matics,  next  Astronomy,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of 
the  series.  Hegel  may  be  taken  as  the  ablest  repre 
sentative  of  the  class  of  Philosophers  who  classify 
the  sciences  with  respect  to  the  laws  of  thought  by 


82  BUILDING    THE    FOUNDATION. 

which  they  are  evolved.  But  he  begins  with  Logic, 
or  the  science  of  pure  ideas  —  a  science  he  has 
scarcely  made  clear  to  the  wisest  men,  to  say  nothing 
of  children.  Herbert  Spencer's  classification  of  the 
sciences,  founded  upon  the  relative  degree  of 
abstractness  in  the  matter  of  the  various  classes 
comprised  in  it,  is  more  exhaustive,  and,  I  think, 
more  philosophical  than  that  of  Comte,  but  it  can 
not  be  used  to  any  more  advantage  in  teaching,  as 
his  first  class  comprises  what  is  most  abstract,  while 
the  work  of  instruction  must  commence  with  what 
is  wholly  concrete.  Our  own  countryman,  Rev.  Dr. 
Hill,  President  of  Harvard  University,  has  arranged 
and  expounded  with  great  ability  a  classification  of 
the  sciences  based  upon  the  order  in  which  the 
several  sciences  are  developed ;  but,  as  has  been 
already  intimated,  and  as  will  be  more  fully  shown 
hereafter,  the  elements  of  all  the  sciences  are  so 
nearly  cotemporaneous  in  origin  that  it  is  practi 
cally  impossible  to  fix  their  position  in  an  order  of 
time.  A  course  of  study,  therefore,  must  com 
mence  with  the  elements  of  all  the  sciences,  and  not 
as  ])r.  Hill  states  in  the  order  of  his  classes,  Mathe- 
sis,  Physics,  History,  Psychology,  and  Theology. 
It  ought  to  be  added,  however,  that,  somewhat  in 
violation  of  his  own  theory,  as  it  seems  to  me,  Dr. 
Hill  advocates  in  practice  the  simultaneous  study 
of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge. 

Failing  to  find  in  any  of  the  schemes  of  classifica 
tion  known  to  me,  those  requisites  which  the  dis 
cussion  contemplated  seems  to  demand,  I  will  group 
into  several  great  classes  the  matter  taught  in  our 
schools,  trusting  to  the  Philosopher  of  a  future  day 


THE    CLASSIFICATION-    OF    KNOWLEDGE.          83 

to  accomplish  what  I  now  feel  myself  unable  to  do. 
These  classes  have  been  formed  with  special  refer 
ence  to  teaching.  They  differ  most  in  the  elements 
they  contain  capable  of  modifying  Methods  of  Instruc 
tion.  Still,  branches  of  knowledge  have  not  been 
thrown  together  independent  of  what  is  considered 
to  be  their  essential  relationships,  nor  in  the  gen 
eral  arrangement  is  all  reference  to  the  order  of 
growth  in  which  knowledge  is  built  up  in  the  mind 
overlooked.  It  will  be  perceived,  however,  that 
these  classes  of  studies  often  involve  one  another. 
From  the  nature  of  the  case,  it  is  impossible  to  form, 
a  classification  to  which  this  may  not  be  made  an 
objection.  The  principles  of  the  various  branches 
of  knowledge  necessarily  overlap  and  interlace,  for 
there  is  in  reality  but  one  science.  Nature  is  a 
whole,  and  one  science  must  be  involved  in  all  other 
sciences.  It  ought  to  be  remarked  further  that  the 
elements  of  all  the  sciences  are,  in  their  beginnings, 
equally  simple.  Nor  can  one  science  ever  attain 
perfection  without  help  from  the  other  sciences. 
The  simplest  fact  that  can  be  observed  must  have  a 
connection  with  the  most  profound  truths.  There 
is  no  proper  hierarchy  of  the  sciences. 

The  classes  it  is  thought  proper  to  make,  are  the 
following : 

FIRST  CLASS.  —  The  Elements  of  Knowledge. — The 
elements  of  knowledge  are  the  perceptions  of  the 
sense  and  the  intuitions  of  the  reason.  Upon  these, 
as  a  basis,  all  knowledge  is  built  up. 

By  perceptions  of  the  sense  is  meant  whatever 
can  be  seen,  heard,  felt,  or  directly  knowr  by  the 


84  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

senses  —  facts  and  phenomena.  Included  in  t',;is 
class  are  the  color,  form,  size,  weight,  and  number 
of  objects;  such  qualities  as  hardness  and  softness, 
smoothness  and  roughness,  sweetness  and  sourness, 
loudness  and  softness;  and  such  phenomena  as 
appear  to  the  senses  in  the  world  about  us. 

By  intuitions  of  the  reason  are  meant  those  regu 
lative  principles  of  the  human  mind  which  render 
all  experience  possible.  A  child  may  be  wholly 
unconscious  of  them,  it  may  be  a  long  time  before 
he  can  give  them  verbal  expression,  but  they  are 
ever  operative,  universal,  and  necessary.  It  cannot 
be  supposed  that  any  mental  operation,  even  the 
simplest  act  of  perception,  takes  place  without  the 
control  of  law;  and  a  careful  analysis  of  such  acts 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  they  involve  certain  uni 
versal  and  necessary  principles  which  admit  of 
statement.  A  very  young  child,  for  example,  knows 
its  mother,  but  the  law  of  identity  and  difference, 
by  which  it  does  so,  cannot,  of  course,  be  under 
stood.  A  boy  who  has  his  ball  in  his  pocket  is 
quite  sure  it  cannot  be  in  the  pocket  of  another  boy, 
although  he  may  not  be  able  to  appreciate  the  axiom 
that  "A  thing  cannot  be  in  different  places  at  the 
same  time."  He  knows,  too,  that  a  whole  pie  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  pieces  into  which  it  is 
cut,  if  he  can  find  no  n't  expression  for  the  principle 
that  enables  him  to  know  it.  Pages  of  illustrations 
might  be  given,  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  principles  upon  which  the  profoundest  Philoso 
phy  must  rest  are  found  operative  in  the  minds  of 
children,  and  must  be  considered  among  the  ele 
ments  of  knowledge. 


THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    KNOWLEDGE.          85 

All  science  must  rest  upon  the  basis  now  poir'eci 
out,  but  the  arts  have  science  itself  for  a  basis ;  and 
soon  after  a  child  is  in  possession  of  the  elements 
of  the  sciences,  he  begins  to  operate  with,  or  upon, 
them  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  what  may  be 
called  the  elements  of  the  arts.  He  imitates  sounds ; 
he  carves  sticks,  and  moulds  clay;  he  paints  his  face 
or  clothes  with  berries;  he  builds  houses  with  stones 
or  blocks ;  he  makes  figures  in  the  sand  ;  indeed,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  trace  in  the  plays  of  children  the 
rude  beginnings  of  many  of  the  arts  which  have 
now,  in  civilized  countries,  reached  such  a  high 
degree  of  perfection. 

The  first  of  our  classes  then  includes  the  elements 
of  knowledge,  the  elements  of  the  sciences,  and  the 
elements  of  the  arts.  The  discussion  of  each  class 
of  knowledge  might  embrace  the  elements  upon 
which  it  rests ;  but  as  teaching  must  begin  by  im 
parting  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  knowledge 
in  general,  without  regard  to  the  class  to  which  they 
belong,  the  plan  adopted  is  considered  the  best. 

SECOND  CLASS. — Language. — Language  might  bo 
classed  among  the  arts,  since,  like  them,  it  is  in 
part,  at  least,  the  product  of  human  skill.  It  might 
be  classed  with  the  Empirical  sciences,  since,  like 
them,  many  of  the  laws  which  govern  it  have  been 
derived  from  observation  and  experiment.  And, 
again,  it  might  be  classed  with  the  Formal  Sciences, 
since  its  laws  are  often  identical  with  the  laws  of 
thought.  Its  great  importance,  in  an  educational 
point  of  view,  however,  determines  me  to  consider 
it  by  itself. 

8 


86  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

The  clans  is  intended  to  embrace  all  those  branches 
of  instruction  which  relate  to  the  acquisition  of  skill 
in  the  use  of  language,  or  which  treat  of  language 
as  a  science. 

THIRD  CLASS. — The  Formal  Sciences. — Two  sciences 
are  designed  to  be  included  in  this  class  —  Mathe 
matics  and  Logic.  Mathematics  gives  precise  ex 
pression  to  the  relations  of  forms  and  numbers,  and 
Logic  gives  precise  expression  to  the  laws  of  thought. 
Matter  could  not  exist  but  for  Mathematical  condi 
tions,  and  thought  is  known  to  us  only  under 
Logical  conditions.  Logic  is  the  more  general  of 
the  two  sciences,  for  Mathematical  reasoning  itself 
is  subject  to  its  forms;  but  their  relationship  is 
sufficiently  obvious. 

FOUKTH  CLASS.  —  The  Empirical  Sciences. — Laws 
learned  by  induction  are  called  Empirical  laws,  and 
the  sciences  composed  of  systems  of  these  laws  have 
received  the  name  of  Empirical  sciences.  Or,  the 
Empirical  sciences  are  the  sciences  which  are  made 
up  of  that  knowledge  of  which  experience  is  the 
source.  Among  these  sciences  are  Geography, 
Chemistry,  Natural  Philosophy,  Physiology,  Zool 
ogy,  Botany,  Geology,  Astronomy,  Psychology,  &c. 

FIFTH  CLASS. —  The  Rational  Sciences.  —  The  basis 
of  the  Rational  sciences  is  the  self-evident,  neces- 
sar}T,  and  universal  principles  which  can  be  directly 
apprehended  by  the  reason  without  the  intervention 
of  any  discursive  process.  Or,  the  Rational  sciences 
are  the  sciences  which  are  evolved  from  thoss  ideaa 


THE    CLASSIFICATION"    OF    KNOWLEDGE.          87 

of  which  experience  is  the  occasion,  but  not  the 
source.  The  term  Metaphysics  might  be  applied 
to  the  whole  class;  and  of  its  subdivisions  I  will 
name  but  three:  Philosophy,  or  the  science  of  THE 
TRUE;  ^Esthetics,  or  the  science  of  THE  BEAUTIFUL; 
and  Uthics,  or  the  science  of  THE  GOOD. 

SIXTH  CLASS. —  The  Historical  Sciences. — History 
collects  the  facts  relating  to  the  life  of  man  upon 
the  earth,  and  presents  them  in  systematic  narra 
tions.  In  its  higher  departments  it  essays  to  solve 
the  problem  of  man's  condition  and  destiny.  Into 
all  calculations  respecting  the  Historical  sciences, 
the  elements  of  a  free-will  and  a  superintending 
Providence  enter,  and  these  render  it  necessary  to 
place  the  Historical  sciences  in  a  class  by  themselves. 

Events  cannot  be  recorded  or  accounted  for  before 
they  have  occurred,  and  hence  History  complements 
all  other  sciences,  and  cannot  be  finished  until  all 
the  future  becomes  the  past. 

SEVENTH  CLASS. — The  Arts. — Art  in  its  beginnings 
may  precede  science,  but  in  its  more  advanced  stages 
it  must  always  follow  it.  Says  Mill,  "Art  neces 
sarily  presupposes  knowledge;  art,  in  any  but  its 
infant  state,  presupposes  scientific  knowledge ;  and 
if  every  art  does  not  bear  the  name  of  the  science 
upon  which  it  rests,  it  is  only  because  several 
sciences  are  often  necessary  to  form  the  ground 
work  of  a  single  art."  This  explains  sufficiently 
well  the  place  occupied  by  "  The  Arts"  in  our  classi 
fication  of  knowledge.  The  class  will  be  divided 
Into  the  Empirical  arts  and  the  Rational  arts. 


88  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

II.  The  Genesis  of  Knowledge. 

It  is  proposed  to  inquire  how  the  human  race  came 
into  possession  of  the  knowledge  they  now  have? 
Volumes  would  be  required  to  push  the  inquiry  to 
its  limits;  but  it  is  hoped  that  enough  concerning 
the  subject  may  be  stated  in  a  few  pages  to  throw 
considerable  light  upon  Methods  of  Instruction. 
The  growth  of  knowledge  in  the  individual  mind 
must  correspond  to  its  historic  growth  in  the  mind 
of  the  race. 

Sufficient  has  already  been  said,  or  will  be  said 
in  other  connections,  concerning  the  genesis  of  the 
"  Elements  of  knowledge,"  and  hence  this  topic 
will  be  omitted  in  the  present  discussion.  The  order 
followed  in  the  discussion  of  the  other  topics  under 
this  head  will  be  that  of  the  preceding  classification 

THE  GENESIS  OF  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  LANGUAGE. — 
Several  theories  of  the  origin  of  language  have  been 
proven  fallacious.  It  is  now  acknowledged  that  no 
ready-formed  vocabulary  could  have  been  the  gift 
of  God.  While  some  words,  in  all  languages,  are 
imitations  of  sounds  heard  in  nature,  the  vast  ma 
jority  of  them  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  any 
system  of  Onomatopoeia.  Interjections  are,  doubt 
less,  found  in  all  languages,  but  that  all  other  parts 
of  speech  are  derived  from  these  has  never  been 
proven,  and  is  past  belief.  The  most  profound  of 
modern  Philologists  have  reached  the  conclusion 
that  man  was  endowed  by  his  Creator  with  the 
power  of  naming r,  and  that  he  exercises  this  power  in 
the  same  way  as  a  bird  sings.  Multitudes  of  words 
Were  produced  ir>  the  earlv  a^es  which  ^erished.  but 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  89 

certain  root- words,  four  or  five  hundred  in  number, 
survived  the  "  struggle  for  life,"  and  now  form  the 
basis  of  all  languages.  These  root- words  are  the 
generous  parents  of  whole  tribes  of  other  words, 
which,  by  being  modified  in  meaning,  compounded 
and  inflected,  swell  the  number  of  words  in  some 
languages  to  eighty  or  a  hundred  thousand. 

But  a  teacher  is  not  so  directly  interested  in  ques 
tions  concerning  the  origin  of  language  as  he  is  in 
those  concerning  the  manner  in  which  children,  in 
ordinary  circumstances,  acquaint  themselves  with 
human  speech. 

I  do  not  doubt  that  the  same  speech-forming 
instinct  or  faculty  exists  now  as  in  the  early  ages  of 
the  world's  history,  and  that  if  the  race  were  to  lose 
all  knowledge  of  the  words  they  now  use  they  would 
produce  new  ones.  But  children  do  not  create  a 
new  language,  they  merely  acquire  the  power  to  use 
one  already  in  existence.  How  do  they  acquire  it? 
First,  they  notice  objects  or  actions.  Then  they 
hear  certain  verbal  sounds  associated  with  them,  and 
finally  learn  to  imitate  these  sounds.  They  are 
aided  in  the  whole  process  by  an  innate  desire  to 
know  and  to  speak.  An  English  child  learns  English 
because  he  hears  English  words  and  English  forms 
of  expression.  Other  languages  are  learned  in  the 
same  way.  The  words  a  child  first  learns  are  those 
that  stand  for  objects  or  actions  which  are  most 
prominently  presented  to  him,  or  in  which  he  feels 
most  interest.  Of  this  class  are  pa,  ma,  puss,  dog, 
horse,  door,  hat,  clock,  bell,  &c.,  &c.,  or  run,  walk,  ride, 
farn,  bark,  sing,  &c.,  &c.  The  same  principle  holds 
good  with  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  ability 


90  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

to  use  forms  of  expression  consisting  of  two  or  more 
words  is  acquired.  The  parts  of  speech  a  child 
generally  uses  first  are  the  noun  and  the  verb,  and 
those  he  next  uses  are  the  adjective  and  the  adverb  ; 
and  it  requires  much  practice  before  he  constructs 
whole  sentences  in  talking. 

It  may  be  fairly  inferred  from  what  has  been  said 
that  the  best  mode  of  teaching  young  children  tho 
use  of  language  is  to  make  their  acquaintance  with 
things  as  extensive  as  possible,  and  to  allow  them 
full  opportunity  of  hearing  things  talked  about,  and 
of  talking  about  them  themselves. 

THE  GENESIS  OF  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  FORMAL 
SCIENCES. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mathematics 
arose  from  very  humble  beginnings.  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  savage  tribe  has  yet  been  found  who 
had  not  some  idea  of  number,  but  some  are  known 
to  exist  who  cannot  count  beyond  five.  Pressed  by 
necessity,  primitive  men  began  to  enumerate  present 
objects.  Afterwards  they  desired  to  count  absent 
objects,  but  finding  the  mental  effort  too  great  they 
resorted  to  counting  their  fingers  as  children  do  now, 
hence  the  application  of  the  word,  digit,  to  a  num 
ber  less  than  ten.  When  they  did  not  count  their 
fingers,  they  may  have  used  pebbles,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  word  calculus,  or  sticks,  or  leaves,  or  grains  of 
corn.  Some  nations  were  found  to  use  five  as  the 
basis  of  their  scale  of  notation,  probably  because  five 
is  the  number  of  fingers  on  one  hand;  and  many  use 
ten,  probably  because  that  is  the  number  of  fingers 
on  both  hands.  Weights  and  measures,  too,  aroso 
in  the  same  way.  No  one  can  be  mistaken  in  tho 


THE    &ENESIS   OF    KNOWLEDGE.  91 

significance  of  words  like  grain,  pennyweight,  carat, 
barleycorn,  foot,  span,  hand,  day,  month,  &c.,  &c.  It  is 
clear  that  the  art  of  numbering  must  have,  for  a  long 
time,  consisted  in  performing  the  simplest  operations 
upon  objects — must  have  been  wholly  concrete.  By 
and  by,  however,  the  ability  to  use  larger  numbers 
was  acquired,  abstractions  were  performed,  symbols 
were  invented  representing,  at  first,  perhaps,  only 
lines  or  strokes,  or  combinations  of  lines  or  strokes, 
more  difficult  calculations  were  made,  and  Arith 
metic  began  to  assume  something  of  its  present  form. 
The  annual  overflowings  of  the  river  Nile,  in 
Egypt,  rendered  it  difficult  to  preserve  the  bounda 
ries  of  the  lands  owned  by  particular  individuals, 
and  it  is  said  that  Geometry  was  first  used  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  land  in  that  country,  and 
hence  derived  its  name.  Doubtless  the  land  was 
measured  in  Egypt,  and  the  circumstance  alluded 
to  may  have  rendered  it  necessary  to  measure  it 
with  more  than  usual  accuracy ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  some  of  the  principles  of  Geometry  must  have 
been  applied  from  the  earliest  dawn  of  the  human 
intellect.  They  were  used  in  constructing  dwellings, 
in  making  domestic  utensils,  articles  of  clothing, 
and  weapons  of  warfare,  in  overcoming  resistances, 
~and  in  calculating  distances.  Indeed,  the  idea  of 
form  must  be  cotemporary  in  origin  with  the  idea 
of  number,  if  it  does  not  precede  it,  and  both  come 
into  the  mind  at  a  very  early  age.  The  arts  now 
referred  to  had  probably  made  considerable  advance 
ment  before  any  particular  notice  was  taken  of  the 
Geometrical  principles  involved  in  them,  but,  by 
and  by,  their  further  progress  rendered  such  notice 


92  BUILDING   THE   FOUNDATION. 

necessary,  and  Geometrical  truths  began  to  be  recog 
nized.  Other  truths  were  found  by  demonstration 
to  be  contained  in  these,  and  a  mass  of  loose  Geo 
metrical  knowledge  floated  about  in  the  minds  of 
men,  until  such  Philosophers  as  Thales,  Pythagoras, 
Plato  and  Euclid  reduced  the  whole  to  systematic 
order,  and  found  fit  expression  for  the  universal  and 
necessary  principles  upon  which  it  is  based. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  defines  Logic  as  the  "Sci 
ence  of  the  necessary  Form  of  Thought."  Abstract 
as  is  the  conception  of  this  science  in  the  minds 
of  Philosophers  like  Hamilton,  and  lofty  as  are  now 
its  claims,  it  is  probable  that  its  beginnings  consisted 
in  the  simplest  reasonings.  Children  reason  now 
almost  from  infancy,  and  we  may  well  suppose  that 
men  did  so  from  the  earliest  times.  The  circum 
stances  by  which  they  were  surrounded  compelled 
them  to  think.  They  must  be  protected  from  cold 
and  heat,  they  must  have  food,  they  must  defend 
themselves  from  animals  and  from  enemies  of  their 
own  species,  and  all  this  required  the  exercise  of 
reason.  Doubtless,  it  was  soon  observed  that  some 
reasoned  well,  made  safe  calculations,  managed  skil 
fully.  These  were  considered  wise  men,  and  often 
became  trusted  rulers.  In  the  course  of  time  many 
observations  were  made  upon  reasonings,  their  cor 
rect  forms  were  in  a  measure  determined,  and  sources 
of  error  were  pointed  out.  If  the  History  of  Logic 
could  be  written,  such  fragments  would  be  found 
among  all  people  who  have  attained  any  considerable 
degree  of  civilization.  They  existed  in  ancient 
India,  in  Egypt,  in  Greece,  and  most  likely  in  other 
countries  of  antiquity.  It  remained  for  the  giant 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  93 

mind  of  Aristotle  to  collect  them,  and  construct  of 
them  a  system  that  has  won  the  admiration  of  the 
world. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  seems  likely  that 
Logic  at  first  consisted  of  descriptions  of  certain 
disconnected  forms  of  thinking  which  men  made 
use  of  in  carrying  on  the  common  affairs  of  life: 
that  afterwards  these  forms  were  compared  and 
simplified  ;  and  that  eventually  they  became  entirely 
abstracted  from  the  matter  which  had  filled  them, 
and  Logic  took  its  place  along  side  of  Mathematics 
as  a  Pure  science. 

THE  GENESIS  OF  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  EMPIRI 
CAL  SCIENCES. — Efforts  have  been  made  to  discover 
the  origin  of  the  sciences  belonging  to  this  class,  and 
to  write  their  history.  Such  efforts  have  been  suc 
cessful  in  accumulating  a  vast  amount  of  valuable 
knowledge,  but  no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  point 
out  the  time  at  which  men  first  began  to  observe 
ilie  facts  upon  which  they  are  based.  When  well 
considered,  this  is  not  at  all  wonderful,  since  the  very 
earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth  must  have  observed 
some  of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  and  these  obser 
vations  of  which  no  record  could  be  kept  became 
.the  basis  of  all  knowledge. 

Our  American  savages  have  among  them  no  such 
thing  as  science,  and  yet  they  are  in  possession  of 
many  of  the  elements  of  the  sciences.  They  have 
marked  the  places  of  some  of  the  stars,  and  can 
calculate  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  change  of  seasons. 
They  can  find  their  way  through  the  forests,  and 
nave  learned  much  concerning  the  properties  of 


94:  BUILDING   THE   FOUNDATION. 

trees  and  plants  and  the  habits  of  animals.  They 
are  familiar  with  the  forms  and  motions  of  the  clouds 
and  the  phenomena  of  rain,  hail,  snow,  &c.  They 
are  acquainted  with  the  processes  of  fermentation 
and  distillation,  and  have  noted  those  of  growth 
and  decay.  Indeed,  they  are  remarkably  close  ob 
servers  of  nature,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  any 
science  can  be  named  of  whose  fundamental  facts 
they  do  not  know  something.  What  is  true  of  these 
untutored  Indians  is  true  of  all  tribes  or  nations  of 
uncivilized  men.  Among  them  there  is  needed  but 
the  ability  to  colligate  and  generalize  to  commence 
the  evolution  of  the  sciences. 

Children,    too,   become   acquainted   with   a  vast, 
number  of  facts — facts  belonging  technically  to  all 
the  sciences,  especially  the  Empirical  sciences;  and 
these  they  can  be  taught  when  older  to  arrange  into 
systems  of  science. 

The  history  of  science  and  the  condition  of  the 
knowledge  in  the  possession  of  uncivilized  men  and 
of  children  indicate  that  the  Empirical  sciences  are 
merely  the  extension  by  means  of  reasoning  of  the 
accumulated  facts  which  experience  has  made 
known.  Common  knowledge  becomes  scientific 
knowledge  by  classification  and  generalization.  A 
common  man  becomes  a  philospher  by  learning  to 
reason. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  position  now 
taken,  a  few  facts  will  be  stated  in  the  history  of  a 
single  science,  Botany.  "In  the  accounts  of  rudest 
tribes,"  says  Whewell,  "in  the  earliest  legends, 
poetry,  and  literature  of  nations,  pines  and  oaks, 
roses  and  violets,  the  olive  and  the  vine,  and  the 


THE    GENESIS   OF    KNOWLEDGE.  95 

thousand  other  productions  of  the  earth,  have  a 
place,  and  are  spoken  of  in  a  manner  which  assumes 
that,  in  such  kinds  of  natural  objects,  permanent  and 
infallible  distinctions  had  been  observed  and  univer 
sally  recognized."  In  the  early  stages  of  man's 
career,  however,  plants  and  parts  of  plants  received 
names  as  individuals  and  of  course  were  not  care 
fully  noticed  in  their  connections  and  relations. 
Then  came  a  time  when  much  inconvenience  was 
felt  from  the  use  of  loose  and  ambiguous  terms  and 
from  the  multitudes  of  objects  which  required  nam 
ing,  and  men  resorted  to  classification  as  a  relief. 

The  first  classifications  of  plants  were  very  vague 
and  unscientific.  Among  them  were  that  which 
divided  plants  into  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs ;  that  of 
Theophrastus  which  divided  them  according  to  size, 
use,  place  of  growth,  lactescence,  and  generation  ;  and 
that  of  Dioscorides,  which  arranged  them  according 
to  their  qualities,  as  aromatic,  alimentary,  medicinal, 
and  vinous.  It  is  easy  to  see  in  all  these  classifica 
tions,  and  in  others  like  them,  the  attempt  to  system* 
atize  the  results  attained  by  the  superficial  observa 
tions  of  men.  The  work  was  rendered  more  difficult 
by  the  many  qualities  which  an  active  fancy  and 
a  love  of  the  marvelous  had  attributed  to  plants. 

The  kind  of  classifications  just  named  was 
gradually  displaced  by  others  more  systematic. 
The  fanciful  gave  way  before  the  real.  Step  by 
step,  closer  investigations  revealed  new  facts,  until, 
at  last,  such  Naturalists  as  Linnaeus  and  Jussieu 
were  enabled  to  place  the  science  of  Botany  upon 
the  firm  basis  of  the  inherent  resemblances  and 
differences  existing  in  the  vegetable  world. 


96  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

The  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Empirical 
sciences  generally,  is  believed  to  be  fairly  exem 
plified  by  the  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of 
Botany. 

THE  GENESIS  cr  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  RATIONAL 
SCIENCES. — We  observe  facts  in  the  material  world; 
upon  investigation  these  facts  are  found  to  have 
certain  relations  which,  when  properly  expressed, 
are  called  laws — the  laws  of  matter.  We  observe, 
by  means  of  our  consciousness,  facts  in  the  world 
of  mind ;  these,  too,  have  their  relations  which  can 
be  expressed  in  the  form  of  laws — the  laws  of  mind. 
Thus  are  constituted  the  Empirical  sciences.  All 
such  laws,  however,  are  dependent,  contingent,  and 
subject  to  modification  or  limitation. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  upon  a  lengthy  dis 
cussion  in  order  to  show  that  we  are  in  the  posses 
sion  of  principles  wholly  unlike  those  which  make 
up  the  Empirical  sciences,  and  which,  indeed,  may 
be  made  to  form  the  basis  of  a  class  of  sciences  by 
themselves;  but  among  these  principles  I  would 
place — 

Certain  Primary  Ideas. — No  one  will  maintain  that 
our  idea  of  space  or  time  corresponds  with  our  con 
ception  of  the  sum  of  our  experienced  spaces  and 
times.  Our  conception  of  the  infinite  and  the  abso 
lute  is,  at  least,  beyond  our  knowledge  of  the  finite 
and  the  relative.  The  ideas  which  we  have  of  the 
true,  the  beautiful,  and  the  good,  greatly  transcend 
the  perfections  of  any  object  which  our  senses  have 
made  known  to  us.  We  think  of  God,  not  merely 
as  a  projection  of  our  own  personality  with  all  its 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  tfi 

human  frailties,  but  as  a  Being  endowed  with  all 
possible  virtues,  without  spot  or  blemish. 

And  Certain  Generalized  Intuitions. — I  mean  by 
Generalized  Intuitions,  the  axioms  of  Mathematics 
and  Logic,  the  maxims  of  Philosophy,  ./Esthetics, 
and  Ethics,  and  the  foundation  principles  of  all 
other  sciences.  I  call  them  "  Intuitions,"  because 
they  are  perceived  by  the  mind  directly,  without  the 
intervention  of  any  discursive  process.  They  are 
without  doubt,  an  outgrowth  of  our  Primary  Ideas. 
I  describe  them  by  the  word  "Generalized,"  since, 
as  it  seems  to  me,  they  are  not  found,  or  do  not 
come  into  the  mind,  except  upon  the  presentation, 
or  representation,  of  an  object  or  a  succession  of 
objects,  either  material  or  mental.  I  distinguish 
them  from  Empirical  laws  because  they  transcend 
experience  and  are  self-evident,  universal,  and  neces 
sary.  Take  the  axiom  —  two  straight  lines  cannot 
enclose  a  space,  and  its  truth  is  perceived  at  once  ; 
but,  although  felt  to  be  self-evident,  universal,  and 
necessary,  such  a  truth  would  never  have  occurred 
to  a  mind  wholly  unacquainted  with  straight  lines. 

The  Rational  Sciences,  then,  are  the  sciences 
which  treat  of  those  Ideas  which  are  the  primary 
sources  of  knowledge,  and  those  Intuitions  which 
may  be  generalized  into  principles  that  are  self- 
evident,  universal,  and  necessary.  What  has  been 
their  manner  of  growth? 

Primary  Ideas,  as  previously  stated,  come  into  the 
mind  upon  the  presentation  or  representation  of 
some  object.  They  are  not  innate  in  the  sense  in 
which  power  of  remembering  or  reasoning  is  innate ; 
but  they  necessarily  attend  the  function  of  cognition. 


98  BUILDING   THE   FOUNDATION. 

These  Ideas  do  not  comprehend  the  infinite  or  the 
absolute,  although  a  belief  in  the  infinite  and  absolute 
is  founded  upon  them.  They  are  things  of  degree, 
widening  as  experience  widens,  but  always  trans 
cending  experience.  Children  and  savages  have 
ideas  of  space  and  time,  of  the  true,  the  beautiful, 
and  the  good,  which  all  the  matter  of  their  experi 
ence  cannot  fill ;  but  they  cannot  fully  realize  these 
ideas  or  find  expression  for  them.  As  men  ad 
vance  in  knowledge  their  Primary  Ideas  become 
more  clear  and  more  comprehensive,  and  finally 
attract  attention,  and  find  articulate  expression. 
Once  held  up  before  the  mind  as  objects  of  study, 
philosophers  evolve  their  contents  and  arrange  them 
in  scientific  order,  deduce  from  them  certain  defini 
tions,  axioms,  maxims,  and  fundamental  truths,  and 
construct  upon  this  foundation,  as  I  suppose,  all  the 
branches  of  Metaphysics.  It  will  be  noticed  that  I 
base  these  sciences  upon  such  ideas  as  we  can  form 
of  the  object-matter  now  under  consideration.  I 
do  not  maintain  that  a  "  Philosophy  of  the  Uncondi 
tioned"  is  possible,  but  I  do  maintain  that  a  Phi 
losophy  of  such  of  our  knowledge  as  transcends 
experience  is  possible,  and  I  think  I  have  showD 
how  it  originates. 

THE  GENESIS  OF  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  HISTORI 
CAL  SCIENCES. — History  is  an  account  of  what  man 
has  done,  and  how,  and  why  he  has  done  it. 

History  may  consist  in  a  narration  of  facts,  and  in 
that  case  the  Genesis  of  our  knowledge  of  it  is  very 
obvious.  All  tribes  of  uncivilized  men  have  their 
traditions.  They  are  re]ated  by  parents  to  their 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  99 

children,  and  by  the  old  to  the  young.  They  con 
tain  some  truth  intermixed,  doubtless,  with  much 
that  is  fabulous.  When  a  people  become  a  little  more, 
advanced  in  civilization,  these  traditions,  in  the  form 
of  myths  or  legends,  are  frequently  sung  or  recited  in 
verse  by  individuals  who  make  a  profession  of  it. 
They  are  sometimes  commemorated  by  rude  figures 
cut  upon  the  surface  of  rocks,  or  by  rough  piles  of 
stone.  After  having  learned  to  write,  it  is  not  long 
till  men  begin  to  compose  History ;  at  first  full  of 
fancy  and  fiction,  by  and  by  it  becomes  more  truth 
ful,  and  assumes  its  proper  place  in  Literature. 
Thus,  the  simple  stories  that  may  be  told  in  the 
cabins  or  around  the  council-fires  of  a  tribe  of 
savages,  become,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  the 
basis  of  the  great  tomes  written  by  a  thousand  pens, 
which  narrate  in  choice  words  and  polished  style  the 
teeming  events  of  the  past. 

History  may  be  the  exposition  of  a  Philosophy, 
and  then  our  study  of  it  can  only  properly  begin 
after  we  have  acquired  much  other  knowledge  upon 
which  it  depends.  The  Philosophy  of  History  is 
the  Philosophy  of  man ;  and  as  he  was  the  last  of 
created  things — the  crowning  glory  of  the  whole,  to 
understand  him  all  else  must  be  understood.  A 
knowledge  of  him,  indeed,  is  necessa?y  to  complete 
all  other  knowledge  ;  but,  in  the  order  of  things, 
we  must  approach  the  study  of  mind  through  the 
Rtudy  of  matter. 

THE  GENESIS  OF  OUR  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  ARTS. — 
Man  undoubtedly  was  created  with  the  power  of 
making  things.  He  was  an  artificer  from  the  be- 


100  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

ginning.  Birds  build  nests,  beavers  make  dams, 
bees  construct  combs  in  which  to  store  their  honey, 
and  the  most  primitive  races  of  men  were  endowed 
with  similar  but  higher  mechanical  powers.  It  is 
not  possible  to  account  for  the  origin  and  growth  of 
the  Arts  without  admitting  that  this  inventive,  crea 
ting  instinct  is  the  foundation  upon  which  they  are 
based.  This  power  was  probably  stimulated  into 
exercise  by  necessity.  Food,  clothing,  protection 
from  the  elements  and  from  wild  beasts,  were,  at 
least,  needed  by  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 
and  such  wants  must  be  supplied;  and,  doubtless, 
under  their  pressure  the  first  rude  Arts  made  their 
appearance.  The  kinds  of  food  first  used  were  nuts, 
berries  and  other  fruits,  and  sometimes  roots.  Flesh 
did  not  come  into  use  until  later,  and  then  it  was 
eaten  raw.  No  cooking  was  done  in  these  early 
times.  The  primitive  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
clothed  themselves  with  the  leaves  of  trees  or  the 
skins  of  animals.  Caves  and  hollow  trees  were  the 
first  houses,  and  clubs  and  stones  the  first  imple 
ments  of  warfare.  "With  these  to  start  with,  the 
human  race  commenced  that  career  of  progress 
which  excites  the  wonder  of  all  who  contemplate  it, 
but  which  can  be  illustrated  here  by  only  a  few 
examples. 

The  Greeks  classed  Drawing,  Writing,  and  Paint 
ing  together,  as  having  a  common  basis,  and  applied 
to  them  the  common  name  7pa<pix^,  or  Graphics.  It 
is  to  be  presumed  that  men  would  early  endeavor 
to  represent  the  strange  forms  which  they  saw  about 
them.  The  first  written  communications  with  one 
another  were  probably  of  this  nature.  As  a  matter 


THE    GENESIS   OF 


of  fact  a  kind  of  picture-writing  or  picture-drawing, 
has  been  found  to  exist  among  a  number  of  tribes 
low  down  in  the  scale  of  civilization.  These  rude 
drawings  were  sometimes  colored,  and  thus  came 
the  first  attempts  at  Painting.  The  colors,  however, 
were  put  on  with  little  skill,  just  as  savages  paint 
their  faces  or  children  daub  pictures  on  paper.  It 
was  not  till  influenced  by  the  fine  scenery  and 
polished  culture  of  Greece  that  this  difficult  art 
assumed  any  thing  like  perfection.  As  Drawing, 
in  the  course  of  time,  branched  off  into  Painting,  so 
also  it  was  the  source  from  which  "Writing  was 
developed.  Things  were  first  represented  by  pic 
tures,  and  as  these,  where  frequently  used,  became 
very  familiar,  their  forms  were  very  much  changed 
and  greatly  abbreviated  to  render  them  more  easily 
and  quickly  made.  By  and  by,  some  of  them  be 
came  symbolical,  as  a  picture  of  a  circle  represented 
eternity,  and  one  of  a  fox,  cunning.  Then  the  same 
characters,  or  the  same  characters  somewhat  modi 
fied,  were  used  to  represent  monosyllabic  words, 
and  when  these  were  compounded,  syllables  of  these 
words.  At  last  they  were  made  to  stand  for  sounds, 
and  the  Alphabet  was  invented.  Thanks  to  some 
old  Egyptian  king,  whose  vanity  built  the  Pyramids 
and  inscribed  them  all  over  with  hieroglyphics,  for 
these  same  hieroglyphics  tell,  in  unequivocal  lan 
guage,  the  story  just  related.  Champollion  and 
others  seem  to  have  found  among  them  pictures 
representing  things  in  every  state  of  transition  until 
they  became  letters  representing  sounds;  that  is, 
they  found  the  same  characters  to  be  ideographic, 
verbal,  syllabic,  and  phonetic. 
9* 


,102  :  BUI  L  DTI?  G-  THE  FOUNDATION. 

Even  in  the  most  polished  styles  of  Architecture 
it  is  thought  the  influence  of  the  primitive  abodes 
of  men   may  be  traced.     The   Egyptian    style  re 
sembles  caves  ;  the  Chinese,  tents  ;  the  Grecian,  huts  ; 
and  the  Gothic,  hollow  trees,  or  trees  themselves,  pine 
or  fir.     Trees  driven  into  the  earth  in  rows  to  sup 
port  a  covering  may  represent  columns  wider  in 
diameter  below  and  narrower  above  as  trees  are. 
The  bases  of  columns  may  have  been  suggested  by 
blocks  of  stone  placed  under  wooden  pillars  to  keep 
them   from   dampness,  and  the  capitals  by  boards 
laid  on  the  tops  of  such  pillars  to  broaden  the  place 
of  support  for  the  structure  which  rested  upon  them. 
Sculpture   in  its   beginnings    had  a  close   relation 
to  Architecture.     Stone,  without  doubt,  was  early 
quarried  and  cut  for  the  purpose  of  building.    Carv 
ings  for  ornament  on  rocks  and  the  walls  of  caves, 
succeeded  carvings  intended  to  preserve  the  memory 
of  real  forms  or  interesting  events.     These  carvings 
were  at  first  slight  indentations  merely  presenting 
the  outlines  of  the  figures,  afterwards  they  were  cut 
out  more  fully  and  assumed  the  form  of  bas-relief, 
and  finally  we  may  reasonably  suppose  whole  statues 
were  chiseled  out.      Piles  of  stone  were  the  first 
monuments,  then  came  plain  monuments  cut  from 
solid  rocks  in  place,  and  these  among  the  Greeks 
assumed   the  form  of  highly  beautified   sculpture 
representing  gods  and  men. 

Poetry  and  Music,  closely  related  as  they  are, 
probably  had  a  cotemporary  origin.  No  tribe  of 
savages  has  ever  been  found  who  had  not  forms  of 
measured  words  and  who  did  not  indulge  in  singing 
them.  The  Poetry  is  often  barbarous,  and  the  Music, 


THE    GENESIS   OF    KNOW-LEDGE.  >  >-    ,   ,103 


a  succession  of  discordant  sounds ;  but  they  are  the 
first  rude  beginnings  of  arts  that  have  done  muct 
to  elevate  mankind.  The  first  musical  instruments 
were  probably  made  of  metals,  as  the  Chinese  gongs; 
of  the  skins  of  animals,  whence  our  drums ;  of  reeds 
or  the  bark  of  small  trees,  whence  our  pipes,  flutes, 
and  organs;  and  of  strings,  whence  lyres,  harps, 
and  pianos. 

Agriculture  must  have  been  practiced  very  early, 
but  the  implements  used  for  loosening  the  soil  were 
at  first  sharpened  sticks,  next  came  implements  of 
stone,  and  after  long  ages  those  of  iron.  Some  trade 
was  probably  carried  on  by  all  uncivilized  nations, 
but  it  consisted  merely  in  exchanges  of  articles  used 
for  food,  clothing,  or  protection.  Rivers  were  at 
first  navigated  on  logs,  which  afterwards  were  hol 
lowed  out  into  canoes.  A  few  of  the  properties  of 
vegetables  seem  to  have  been  discovered  at  an  early 
day,  and  certain  of  them  used  for  medicines  among 
all  primitive  people. 

Sufficient  has  now  been  said  concerning  the 
Genesis  of  our  Knowledge  to  warrant  a  few  general 
izations  which  have  an  important  educational  sig 
nificance  : 

First,  Knowledge  as  a  whole  seems  to  have  been  de 
veloped  from  the  common  observations  of  men  stimulated 
by  animal  or  spiritual  wants. — In  the  early  history  of 
the  race,  the  pressure  of  animal  wants  seems  to  have 
done  most  to  promote  science  and  art ;  but  in  all 
times,  and  especially  in  highly  civilized  nations, 
men  have  been  moved  to  the  attainment  of  know 
ledge  by  the  wants  of  their  spiritual  nature.  This 


1Q4  B,UILI>1NG   THE    FOUNDATION. 

is  the  case  whenever  knowledge  is  sc light  for  its 
own  sake  or  with  the  end  in  view  of  making  more 
perfect  him  who  seeks  it. 

In  addition  to  what  has  already  been  said  in  sup 
port  of  the  main  proposition,  the  opinion  of  the 
learned  Philologist,  Max  Miiller,  may  be  quoted. 
He  says,  "  However  humiliating  it  may  sound,  every 
one  of  our  sciences,  however  grand  their  titles,  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  most  humble  and  homely 
occupations  of  half-savage  tribes.  It  was  not  the 
true,  the  good,  and  the  beautiful,  which  spurred  the 
early  philosophers  to  deep  researches  and  bold  dis 
coveries.  The  foundation-stone  of  the  most  glorious 
structures  of  human  ingenuity  in  ages  to  come,  was 
supplied  by  the  pressing  wants  of  a  patriarchal  and 
semi-barbarous  society." 

I  know  indeed  that  it  is  argued  by  some,  that 
Adam  and  his  immediate  descendants  must  have 
received  knowledge  as  a  gift  from  the  Divine  hand, 
inasmuch  as  no  savage  nation  has  ever  been  known 
to  civilize  itself.  But  this  theory  does  not  account 
for  the  fact  that  new  discoveries  and  new  inventions 
have  been  made,  and  surely  all  that  is  known  con 
cerning  the  evolution  of  the  sciences  and  arts  is 
against  it.  The  correct  theory  probably  is  that  God 
endowed  the  first  men  with  the  power  of  gaining 
knoivledge,  that  he  has  continued  so  to  endow  man, 
and  that  all  progress  in  learning  and  skill  is  owing 
to  the  operation  of  this  power  moved  by  causes 
in  the  condition  and  circumstances  of  men,  and 
prompted  at  times,  doubtless,  by  the  direct  agency 
of  the  spirit  of  God.  It  stems  clear  to  me  that  the 
problem  of  human  civilization  :«j  impossible  of  sola- 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  105 

tion  without  an  acknowledgment  of  the  direct  inter 
position  of  Deity  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

Second.  A  Course  of  Instruction  should  commence 
with  the  General  Elements  of  Knowledge.  —  Children 
evince  their  knowledge-acquiring  power  by  noticing 
objects,  and  learning  their  qualities  and  phenomena. 
They  evince  their  art-producing  power  by  changing 
the  places  of  objects,  and  forming  them  into  new 
combinations ;  by  piling  up  blocks,  building  play 
houses,  cutting  figures  from  paper,  and  imitating 
the  words  and  actions  of  those  about  them.  What 
has  been  said  concerning  the  Genesis  of  our  Know 
ledge  goes  to  show  that,  as  children  acquire  know 
ledge  now,  so  men  acquired  it  in  the  infancy  of  the 
race.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  instruction  must 
begin  with  the  elements  of  knowledge. 

These  elements  should  be  made  to  comprehend 
as  much  as  possible —  should  not  be  confined  to  a 
few  particular  branches,  but  be  general.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  push  children  into  the  higher  parts 
of  any  one  study  until  they  have  learned  the  ele 
ments  of  many  studies.  For  example,  the  principles 
of  Grammar  and  Arithmetic  are  studied  by  many 
who  ought  to  be  studying  the  elements  of  the  Natu 
ral  Sciences,  or  other  branches  adapted  to  their 
mental  condition.  Thousands  of  children  are  thus 
mentally  surfeited  every  year,  and  the  result  is  a 
mental  dyspepsia  in  early  youth  that  entails,  during 
their  whole  life-time,  sad  consequences  upon  ita 
poor  victims. 

Third.    The  second  great  step  in  a  Course  of  Instruc- 


106  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION". 

tion  should  be  to  acquaint  pupils  with  Particular  Branches 
of  Knotvledge. — A  child  learns  facts  and  phenomena 
as  they  present  themselves.  He  may,  in  a  single 
day,  learn  such  as  belong  technically  to  twenty 
different  sciences  and  arts. 

At  its  base  all  science  is  united,  has  only  one 
trunk ;  but  it  soon  begins  to  divide  and  subdivide 
into  numerous  branches.  The  homogeneous  be 
comes  the  heterogeneous  by  a  wonderful  process  of 
differentiation.  The  undefined  elements  of  general 
science  become  the  well-defined  elements  of  par 
ticular  sciences.  And  as  is  the  growth  of  the  sci 
ences  so  must  they  be  studied. 

Branching  from  the  same  trunk,  the  sciences 
never  lose  their  reciprocal  relationship,  and  always 
shed  mutual  light  upon  one  another,  yet  they  are 
sufficiently  distinct  to  admit  of  independent  study. 
Beyond  the  elements,  therefore,  the  several  branches 
of  science  maybe  pursued,  each  by  itself,  all  together, 
or  a  few  at  a  time. 

Educational  institutions  almost  universally  have 
what  is  called  a  Course  of  Study.  Each  pupil 
studies  A  few  branches  at  a  time,  and  when  he  is 
thought  to  have  completed  these  to  the  extent 
desired,  he  commences  others,  and  thus  goes  on 
until  he  has  mastered  the  prescribed  course.  What 
use  has  thus  sanctioned  will  generally  be  found  the 
best  policy. 

If  a  pupil  enjoy  an  opportunity  of  pursuing  a 
course  of  study  wisely  arranged  according  to  this 
plan,  it  will  be  well  for  him  to  follow  it  through 
Common  School,  High  School,  and  College,  and, 
afterwards,  if  the  desire  exist,  and  the  way  open,  htf 


THE    GENESIS    OF    KNOWLEDGE.  107 

may  apply  himself  to  some  particular  science  or 
department  of  science.  Considerable  general  know 
ledge  must  be  possessed,  and  a  good  degree  of  mentai 
discipline  be  attained,  before  fresh  investigators  can 
push  their  inquiries  beyond  the  present  limits  of 
some  existing  science,  or  make  discoveries  worthy 
the  name  of  a  new  one ;  and  a  life-time  is  too  short 
to  accomplish  much  in  a  wider,  unexplored  field  of 
research  than  a  single  science  affords.  In  fewer 
words,  the  plan  proposed  is  this :  teach,  first,  the 
elements  of  the  sciences  in  general ;  next,  teach  in 
detail  the  most  important  principles  of  the  several 
sciences  composing  a  carefully  arranged  course  of 
study ;  and  last,  let  those  who  can,  make  themselves 
masters  of  some  special  branch  of  science,  and  push 
their  inquiries  beyond  what  is  known  respecting  it. 
This  is  essentially  the  plan  adopted  in  countries 
where  learning  has  made  the  greatest  progress ; 
and  it  is  the  only  plan  which  can  secure  to  the  stu 
dent  general  scholarship  under  the  greatest  advan 
tages,  and,  at  the  same  time,  afford  him  opportunity, 
with  the  fairest  prospects  of  success,  of  fathoming 
the  depths  of  some  special  science,  and  adding,  in 
that  direction,  something  to  the  sum  of  human 
knowledge. 

Fourth,  A  Course  of  Instruction  should  End  by 
Teaching  the  Relationship  and  Harmony  of  all  Know 
ledge. — It  would  be  a  difficult  thing  to  determine  the 
lines  which  separate  one  science  or  one  art  from 
another.  Knowledge  is  not  composed  of  indepen 
dent  facts  and  principles,  all  its  parts  belong  to  one 
whole;  and  the  Philosopher  is  always  distinguished 


108  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

from  the  mere  Scholar  by  his  broad,  comprehensive 
generalizations  which  mark  the  unity  of  created 
things  and  from  which  may  be  inferred  the  unity  of 
the  creating  Mind. 

No  course  of  study  can  be  considered  complete 
until  the  logical  relations  of  all  its  parts  have  been 
exhibited.  Pupils  pursuing  different  studies,  treated 
of  in  different  works  by  different  authors,  and  some 
times  taught  by  different  teachers,  are  apt  to  over 
look  their  relationship  and  harmony.  Each  branch 
becomes  isolated,  and  pupils  are  required  to  study 
the  details  of  particular  sciences  when  they  ought 
to  be  engaged  in  learning  the  principles  of  general 
science.  It  is  hardly  possible  in  school,  for  example, 
to  teach,  in  full  detail,  any  one  of  the  Natural 
Sciences,  but  it  is  possible  to  teach  the  great,  leading 
principles  of  all  of  them.  The  specific  study  of  the 
sciences  should,  therefore,  be  followed  by  the  general 
study  of  science.  A  course  of  study  should  not  end 
in  a  number  of  points  but  in  a  centre.  The  skill  of 
an  architect  cannot  be  fully  appreciated  while  his 
work  lies  scattered  in  disjointed  fragments,  so  the 
value  of  science  is  much  lessened  and  its  beauty 
much  obscured  to  him  whose  study  ends  in  contem 
plating  disconnected  facts,  broken  systems,  and 
inharmonious  expressions.  Comte  says :  "  The 
present  exclusive  speciality  of  our  pursuits,  and  the 
consequent  isolation  of  the  sciences,  spoil  our  teach 
ing.  If  any  student  desires  to  form  an  idea  of  Na 
tural  Philosophy,  as  a  whole,  he  is  compelled  to  go 
through  each  department  as  it  is  now  taught,  as  if 
he  were  to  be  only  an  Astronomer,  or  only  a  Chemist ; 
so  that,  be  his  intellect  what  it  may,  his  training 


THE    ORDER    OF    STUDY. 

must  remain  very  imperfect.  And  yet  his  object 
requires  that  he  should  obtain  general  positive  con 
ceptions  of  all  the  classes  of  natural  phenomena. 
It  is  such  an  aggregate  of  conceptions  of  all  classes, 
whether  on  a  great  or  on  a  small  scale,  which  must 
henceforth  be  the  permanent  basis  of  all  human 
combinations.  It  will  constitute  the  mind  of  future 
generations.  In  order  to  this  regeneration  of  our 
intellectual  system,  it  is  necesssary  that  the  sciences, 
considered  as  branches  from  one  trunk,  should  yield 
us,  as  a  whole,  their  chief  methods  and  their  most 
important  results.  The  specialities  of  science  can 
be  pursued  by  those  whose  vocation  lies  in  that 
direction.  They  are  indispensable,  and  they  are 
not  likely  to  be  neglected,  but  they  can  never  of 
themselves  renovate  our  system  of  Education." 

III.  The  Order  of  Study. 

It  was  previously  stated  that  the  sciences  do  not 
admit  of  a  serial  arrangement.  In  their  primary 
elements,  all  of  them  are  equally  simple,  and  in  their 
ultimate  principles  all  of  them  are  equally  difficult. 
They  can  be  cultivated  simultaneously,  or  they  can 
be  cultivated  as  they  grew  up,  first,  in  the  form 
of  general  elements ;  second,  in  the  form  of  special 
sciences  ;  and,  last,  in  the  form  of  the  philosophy  of 
science.  Upon  these  points,  however,  sufficient  has 
already  been  said. 

In  the  discussion  which  is  to  follow,  concerning 

methods  of  teaching  the  several  branches  of  study, 

much  care  will  be  taken  to  point  out  the  order  in 

which  the  several  parts  of  each  branch  should  be 

10 


llO  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

taught,  and  this  will  render  unnecessary  an  investi 
gation  of  the  same  subject  in  this  place.  It  is  de 
signed  here  to  show  what  different  studies  or  parts 
of  different  studies  can  be  profitably  pursued  simul 
taneously.  Our  aim  will  not  be  to  name  these 
studies  so  much  with  reference  to  their  logical  rela 
tions  among  themselves  as  with  respect  to  their 
adaptation  to  the  mental  condition  of  pupils  when 
they  engage  in  their  study.  Constant  reference  will 
be  had  to  the  Classification  of  Knowledge  already 
presented. 

Our  education  should  never  end,  but  that  portion 
of  our  days  which  we  appropriately  devote  almost 
exclusively  to  obtaining  an  education,  may  be  called 
the  school-time  of  life.  Our  school-time  of  life  may 
be  divided  into  four  periods;  the  first  embracing 
the  time  from  birth  to  the  age  of  five  years ;  the 
second,  from  the  age  of  five  to  ten  ;  the  third,  from 
ten  to  sixteen ;  and  the  fourth,  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-one.  The  first  of  these  periods  may  be 
called  Infancy;  the  second,  Childhood;  the  third, 
Youth;  and  the  fourth, Manhood.  This  classification 
will  be  of  much  practical  value,  but  from  the  nature 
of  the  case  it  is  a  very  loose  one.  The  task  we 
undertake  is  to  name  the  branches  of  learning  or 
the  kind  of  study  suitable  for  each  period.  A 
general  statement  is  all  that  is  practicable,  and  each 
teacher  must  work  out  the  details  for  himself  with 
the  aid  furnished  him  in  subsequent  chapters. 

FIRST  PERIOD. — Infancy.  —  The  first  care  of  a 
mother  is  to  preserve  her  infant's  health.  The 


THE    ORDER    OF   STUDY.  Ill 

large  number  of  deaths  which  occur  during  infancy 
pvoves  such  care  to  be  necessary. 

Not  less  important  than  the  preservation  of  their 
h  jalth  is  the  formation  of  the  character  of  young 
ciildren.  Those  traits  of  character  which  distin- 
gaish  a  child  at  five  years  of  age  are  most  likely  to 
distinguish  him  through  life.  Much  influence  may 
be  allowed  to  the  laws  of  hereditary  descent,  their 
due  weight  may  be  given  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  school  and  of  general  society,  and  it  will  still  be 
tr  ae  that  whether  an  individual  possess  the  virtues  of 
industry,  perseverance,  honesty,  manliness,  bravery, 
kindness,  piety,  and  the  like,  or  otherwise,  will  de 
pend  mainly  upon  the  home  instruction,  or  rather 
home-impressions,  which  children  receive  during  the 
first  five  years  of  life.  But  we  are  at  present  con 
cerned  only  with  the  intellectual  acquisitions  which 
a  child  can  make  during  the  period  of  Infancy. 
These  intellectual  acquisitions  have  been  expressed 
by  the  terms  Elements  of  Knowledge,  and  are  con 
sidered  to  form  the  bases  of  all  we  know.  Such 
knowledge  comes  from  an  experience  with  objects, 
and  is  best  learned,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter,  in 
series  of  lessons  given  without  much  regard  to  the 
scientific  arrangement  of  their  subject-matter.  All 
classes  of  knowledge  may  be  profitably  embraced 
in  a  single  lesson.  Here,  however,  it  may  be  best 
to  point  out  what  a  child  may  learn  during  the 
period  of  Infancy  concerning  the  elementary  facts, 
phenomena,  and  forms  of  the  great  classes  into 
which  it  has  been  deemed  expedient  to  divide  our 
knowledge. 

An  infant  learns  to  speak.     It  is  a  vvonderful  pro- 


112  BUILDING    THE    FOUNDATION. 

cess,  and  requires  the  guiding  care  of  parents.  The 
speaking  instinct  must  be  encouraged  to  manifest 
itself  with  the  utmost  freedom.  The  sounds  of  the 
language  must  be  correct!  jr  uttered  and  proper  forms 
of  expression  must  be  furnished,  and  the  child's 
faltering  tongue  be  taught  to  imitate  them.  If  a 
child  listen  to  good  language,  he  will  know  no 
other.  All  bad  habits  of  speech  should  be  carefully 
corrected. 

Number  is  an  idea  which  we  obtain  very  early. 
Before  the  age  of  five,  a  child  may  be  taught  to 
count  objects,  and  to  add  and  subtract  small  num 
bers  by  their  means.  He  must  be  able  to  conceive 
forms  in  order  to  tell  one  object  from  another.  lie 
reasons,  too,  and  should  have  his  opportunities  of  so 
doing  multiplied. 

Before  a  child  can  speak,  objects  may  be  given  to 
him,  and  he  will  learn  many  of  their  properties  in  play 
ing  with  them.  Well-selected  toys  may  be  made  to 
furnish  valuable  information.  The  more  he  is  allowed 
to  hear  and  see,  the  sharper  will  be  his  senses  and 
the  more  he  will  remember.  It  can  hardly  be  said 
with  sufficient  emphasis  that  the  kind  of  instruction 
most  suitable  for  Infancy  is  that  which  is  addressed 
to  the  senses  and  the  powers  of  perception — that 
which  can  be  best  imparted  by  the  direct  presenta 
tion  of  objects  and  their  phenomena  or  vivid  pic 
tures  of  them.  The  intense  curiosity  of  cMldren 
prompts  them  to  seek  what  is  new,  but  they  uotice 
things  as  individuals,  not  in  their  connection's  and 
nature  on  the  surface  so  presents  them.  The  Em 
pirical  sciences  are  based  upon  the  facts  cf  r»\pe 
rience,  and,  if  allowed  fit  opportunity,  a  ht<le  ?hvld 


THE    ORDER    OF    STUDY.  113 

will  become  acquainted  with  multitudes  of  these 
facts. 

•  Durir.g  the  period  now  referred  to,  the  principles 
of  the  Rational  sciences  cannot  be  made  the  direct 
object  of  instruction ;  but  it  is  very  evident  that  they 
are  operative  in  the  minds  of  children.  They  recog 
nize  the  truth  of  such  axioms  as  "  A  whole  is  greater 
than  any  of  its  parts"  in  relation  to  particular  things, 
although  they  do  not  generalize  them  or  understand 
thftir  verbal  expression.  They  also  can  be  trained 
IP  a  degree  to  discriminate  between  truth  and  false 
hood,  beauty  and  deformity,  and  right  and  wrong. 
Ko  part  of  elementary  education  can  be  of  greater 
importance  than  that  of  teaching  the  young  to  make 
these  recognitions  and  discriminations,  but  there  is 
no  part  of  it  more  neglected. 

Nothing  delights  a  child  more  than  stories,  narra 
tives,  and  personal  incidents,  if  related  or  read  in 
language  which  he  can  understand.  Good  fruit 
could  be  produced  by  instruction  of  this  kind. 

Children  can  learn  to  sing  almost  as  soon  as  they 
can  learn  to  talk.  At  the  age  of  three  or  four,  they 
will  draw  figures  on  a  slate  or  blackboard,  cut  paper, 
mould  clay,  build  play-houses,  and  imitate  many 
simple,  mechanical  contrivances.  Such  educators 
as  Pestalozzi  and  De  Fellenberg  understood  this 
want  of  children  and  provided  for  it. 

SECOND  PERIOD. — Childhood. — If  during  the  period 
of  his  life  between  the  ages  of  five  and  ten  years, 
a  child  does  not  learn  to  speak  well,  it  is  scarcely 
'ikely  that  he  will  ever  do  so.  Pure  models  should 
oe  furnished  him;  and  he  may  be  taught  to  speak 
10* 


114  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

foreign  languages  as  well  as  his  mother-tongue. 
Exercises  in  Pronouncing,  Spelling,  Reading  and 
Composing,  may  be  commenced  and  prosecuted 
during  this  period.  The  meaning  of  a  gieat  number 
of  words  may  be  learned  if  properly  illustrated  and 
explained.  Lessons  on  classes  of  words  may  be 
given,  but  Grammar  proper  is  a  study  too  difficult 
for  children  under  the  age  of  ten. 

During  this  period  children  can  be  readily  taught 
to  read  and  write  numbers,  and  to  perform  the 
Mathematical  operations  of  Addition,  Subtraction, 
Multiplication,  and  Division,  both  of  Integers  and 
Fractions.  These  operations  should  be  performed 
at  first  with  objects,  and  both  the  mental  and  written 
forms  of  solution  ought  to  be  practiced.  They  may 
engage  with  great  profit  in  the  solution  of  simple 
problems  involving  these  fundamental  rules,  but 
they  cannot  make  much  progress  in  reasoning  about 
the  relations  of  numbers.  Pupils  of  this  age,  too, 
may  be  made  acquainted  with  Geometrical  figures 
and  their  properties  so  far  as  they  can  be  exhibited 
to  the  eye  by  diagrams  or  blocks.  Any  except  the 
simplest  attempts  at  demonstration  would  be  out  of 
place.  No  generalization  of  the  reasoning  process 
can  be  understood  by  a  child  of  ten  years  of  age, 
and,  therefore,  theoretical  Logic  is  beyond  his  reach. 
lie  can  reason,  however,  and  should  be  encouraged 
to  use  his  powers  in  this  respect.  His  questions 
should  be  answered,  and  he  should  be  led  to  seek 
for  the  causes  of  things. 

From  five  to  ten  years  of  age,  the  powers  of  the 
mind  which  are  predominantly  active  are  the  senses, 
the  perceptive  faculties,  the  memory,  and  the  fancy; 


THE    ORDER    OF    STUDY.  115 

and  these  fit  the  mind  for  making  observations  and 
storing  away  facts.  It  cannot  be  doubted,  therefore, 
that  much  time  during  this  period  should  be  spent 
in  the  study  of  the  elements  of  the  Empirical  sciences. 
A  child  may  be  made  familiar  with  thousands  of  in 
teresting  facts,  and  learn  the  names  of  thousands  of 
interesting  objects.  He  may  thus  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  elements  of  Geography,  Botany,  Zoology, 
Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  Physiology,  and 
other  sciences  like  them.  The  simple  facts  of  this 
class  of  sciences  seem  to  be  particularly  adapted  to 
the  capacity  of  children  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  ten,  and  peculiarly  pleasing  to  their  tastes. 
They  are  keenly  alive  to  all  that  is  new,  or  strange, 
or  curious.  Before  the  age  of  ten,  however,  it  should 
be  remembered,  a  child  is  not  prepared  to  appreciate 
generalizations,  abstractions,  systems,  or  theories, 
and  it  is  folly  to  attempt  to  teach  them  to  him. 
Children  cannot  be  made  philosophers ;  but  the 
condition  of  their  mental  nature  admirably  fits  them 
for  learning  the  names  and  more  obvious  properties 
of  the  multitudes  of  objects  which  the  bountiful 
hand  of  God  has  scattered  all  about  us  as  if  His 
purpose  was  to  furnish  means  of  pleasing  and 
instructing  little  children. 

Rational  science  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  children 
of  ten  years  of  age ;  but  the  principles  upon  which 
such  sciences  are  founded,  as  previously  stated,  may 
be  made  operative  in  their  minds.  They  operate, 
indeed,  in  the  minds  of  all  persons,  however  young 
or  ignorant;  but  by  a  studied  presentation  of  occa 
sions  calculated  to  call  them  into  activity,  the  mind 
receives  that  discipline  which  eventually  prepares  it 


116  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION1. 

for  their  apprehension  and  systematic  elaboration, 
The  kind  of  instruction,  therefore,  that  was  con 
sidered  proper  up  to  the  age  of  five  must  be  con 
tinued  to  the  age  of  ten  and  longer.  Any  attempt 
to  teach  a  child  of  this  age  to  account  for  principles 
which  are  to  him  simply  instincts  that  guide  his 
life,  or  to  make  him  comprehend  even  the  first  steps 
of  a  systematically  arranged  Rational  science,  would 
prove  a  fruitless  labor.  As  inductions  from  par 
ticular  facts,  such  principles  can  be  understood  by 
a  child ;  but  as  abstract  principles,  independent  of 
facts  but  conditioning  them,  they  can  be  compre 
hended  only  by  mature  minds.  To  open  the  minds 
of  his  pupils  to  the  comprehension  of  these  princi 
ples  in  the  only  form  in  which  they  can  be  under 
stood,  as  a  preparation  for  understanding  them  in 
that  higher  form  in  which  they  become  our  main 
reliance  in  solving  the  greatest  problems  of  life,  is 
the  highest  duty  of  the  educator. 

History,  when  presented  in  a  form  suited  to  their 
capacity,  has  great  attractions  for  children.  They 
like  the  play  of  life — like  to  read  accounts  of  voyages, 
travels,  and  past  events,  and  they  do  not  forget  what 
they  read.  They  are  especially  fond  of  the  novel 
and  the  marvelous.  Fiction  might  be  made  highly 
useful  in  the  work  of  education.  A  Fiction  may 
be  a  faithful  portraiture  of  life,  and  as  such  to  be 
commended.  The  strong  appetite  which  the  young 
manifest  for  this  kind  of  literature  is  not  without 
its  meaning.  With  judicious  management  it  can  be 
gratified  without  harm,  and  in  due  time  will  give 
place  to  other  mental  appetites,  for  which  it  is,  ir/ 
part,  a  preparation. 


THE    ORDER    OF    STUDY.  117 

In  the  Arts,  at  this  age,  a  pupil  can  be  learning  to 
draw  and  write.  His  Drawing  ought  to  be  confined 
to  copying  pictures,  drawing  simple  objects  from 
nature,  and  inventing  easy  patterns.  lie  ought  to 
learn  to  work,  to  imitate  models,  and  to  handle 
tools.  It  will  do  him  good  to  visit  shops  and  manu 
factories,  lie  should  be  taught  to  sing,  and  may 
begin  to  take  lessons  upon  some  musical  instrument. 
Pictures  will  delight  him,  but  not  those  which  re 
present  some  abstract  idea,  but  those  rather  which 
exhibit  life. 

THIRD  PERIOD.  —  Youth. — With  respect  to  Lan 
guage,  instruction,  during  this  period,  should  be 
continued  in  all  that  relates  to  Reading  and  Com 
position.  The  pupil's  vocabulary  of  words  should 
be  enlarged  by  careful  study.  The  Grammar  of  the 
English  language  may  be  commenced  at  ten,  and, 
if  other  languages  are  to  be  studied,  they  may  be 
commenced  at  the  same  age.  Some  progress  may 
DC  made  in  speaking,  reading,  and  writing  our  own 
and  other  languages  before  this  age;  but  their  formal 
study  cannot  profitably  commence  earlier.  A  course 
of  reading  in  both  prose  and  poetry  should  be  con 
tinued  through  the  whole  period  of  youth. 

In  Mathematics,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  and  Alge 
bra  can  be  completed  by  the  time  a  pupil  is  sixteen 
years  of  age,  at  least  so  far  as  these  subjects  are 
treated  of  in  our  ordinary  text-books.  During  this 
period,  pupils  must  be  carefully  trained  to  habits  of 
correct  reasoning  —  they  must  be  taught  to  observe 
the  laws  of  Logic  in  their  thinking.  The  higher 
generalizations  of  abstract  Logic  may  be  beyond 


118  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

their  reach,  but  they  can  be  made  acquainted  with 
the  most  useful  forms  of  syllogism,  and  with  the 
modes  of  discovering  truth  and  exposing  error. 

Competent  to  classify  and  generalize,  the  youth 
of  from  ten  to  sixteen  years  of  age  may  study  the 
properties  and  phenomena  of  objects  in  connection 
with  the  laws  that  govern  their  relations.  To  do 
this  he  must  not  only  observe,  but  he  must  search 
and  make  experiments ;  and  he  should  be  so  taught 
that  he  may  rise  gradually  from  the  sphere  of  scat 
tered  facts  to  the  sphere  of  united  systems.  During 
this  period  great  progress  ought  to  be  made  in 
sciences  like  Geography,  Physiology,  Natural  Phi 
losophy,  Chemistry,  Botany,  and  Astronomy.  The 
facts  relating  to  them  should  be  classified,  inferences 
should  be  drawn,  and  a  general  preparation  should 
be  made  for  the  full  discussion  of  their  highest 
principles. 

The  time  for  the  study  of  the  Rational  sciences 
does  not  come  to  many  before  the  age  of  sixteen. 
Instruction  relating  to  them  should,  therefore,  be 
continued  in  the  spirit  of  that  described  as  appro 
priate  for  the  period  of  childhood.  In  addition, 
however,  at  about  the  age  of  sixteen,  pupils  may  be 
taught  the  distinction  between  universal,  necessary, 
and  self-evident  truths  and  such  as  are  empirical. 
Forms  of  expression  may  be  given  to  some  of  the 
grand  maxims  which  constitute  the  basis  of  aJi 
science,  and  pupils  be  taught  to  realize  their  truth. 
Undefined  standards  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness 
can  be  applied  with  great  profit.  Progress  can  be 
made  in  the  arts  which  depend  upon  the  principles 


THE    OKDER    OF    STUDY.  119 

of  the  Rational  sciences  long  before  these  principles 
themselves  can  be  made  an  object  of  thought. 

During  the  period  of  youth,  History  should 
occupy  a  prominent  place  among  the  studies  of 
every  pupil  who  desires  a  liberal  education,  or  who 
desires  to  guide  his  own  life  by  the  lamp  of  past 
experience.  First  in  importance  is  the  History  of 
one's  own  country,  then  that  of  other  countries 
most  closely  related  to  it,  or  that  of  those  which 
have  played  the  most  important  part  in  the  world's 
affairs.  Biographies  of  the  good  and  great  will  be 
read  with  avidity,  and  are  well  calculated  to  exert  a 
favorable  influence  upon  the  young.  The  historical 
development  of  the  several  sciences  will  furnish 
matter  of  much  interest.  From  these  sources,  vast 
stores  of  lacts  can  be  collected,  and  will  furnish  a 
basis  for  the  generalizations  which  belong  to  tho 
Philosophy  of  History. 

Sufficient  skill  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life 
may  be  acquired  in  Writing  and  Drawing  during 
this  period.  Instruction  in  Vocal  Music  should 
continue,  and  if  proficiency  in  Instrumental  Music, 
Painting,  or  any  other  branch  of  an  ornamental 
education  be  desirable,  it  can  be  most  rapidly  at 
tained  during  the  years  between  ten  and  sixteen. 
I  think  the  Formal  and  the  Empirical  Sciences  can 
be  most  effectually  taught  in  connection  with  the  ap 
plication  of  their  principles  to  the  arts  of  which  they 
are  the  bases.  Sciences  like  Arithmetic,  Chemistry, 
and  Astronomy,  excite  much  more  interest  in  the 
minds  of  students  when  they  see  that  they  can  be 
made  praciical — when  they  see  their  use  in  the 
arts.  When  the  young  exhibit  special  mechanical 


120  BUILDING   THE    FOUNDATION. 

talent,  or  special  talent  in  an  art  of  any  kind,  that 
talent  should  receive  special  culture. 

FOURTH  PERIOD. — Manhood. — At  the  termination 
of  this  period,  the  scholastic  course  of  study  is 
supposed  to  be  completed. 

Suitable  studies  in  language  are  Rhetoric,  Criti 
cism,  Literature,  and  foreign  languages,  both  an 
cient  and  modern. 

Studies  in  the  Formal  Sciences  should  embrace 
the  higher  Mathematics  and  Logic.  Their  relations 
to  other  sciences  should  be  pointed  out,  and  an 
application  of  their  principles  should  be  made. 

The  more  abstruse  principles  of  the  Empirical 
Sciences  studied  during  this  period,  can  be  mas 
tered ;  and  such  principles,  and  the  relations  of 
these  sciences  to  one  another,  are  proper  objects  of 
study  for  minds  approaching  maturity.  Pupils 
may  be  encouraged  to  select  some  one  of  the 
sciences,  and  to  prosecute  original  investigations 
with  respect  to  it.  The  ambition  to  add  something 
to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge  is  a  worthy  one. 

This  period  should  be  characterized  by  the  study 
of  the  Rational  Sciences,  furnishing  as  they  do  the 
noblest  themes  for  human  thought,  and  the  best 
means  of  mental  discipline.  It  will  be  found,  too, 
that  their  principles  underlie  all  other  sciences,  and 
are  necessary  to  their  full  comprehension.  That 
teacher  deserves  the  name  of  wise  man,  who,  taking 
his  pupils  through  many  sciences,  leads  them  at  last 
to  the  firm  conviction  that  faith  is  the  only  sure 
basis  of  all  philosophy ;  and  this,  when  well  under 
stood,  is  the  spirit  of  all  Metaphysical  study. 


THE    ORDER    OF    STUDY.  121 

History  must  now  embrace  the  History  of  science 
and  the  History  of  philosophy,  as  well  as  reveal  the 
principles  that  have  ever  worked  changes  in  tb.e 
affairs  of  men.  Its  highest  province  is  to  embrace 
all  science  and  all  art  in  its  comprehensive  narra 
tions,  and  to  trace  out  the  causes  and  effects  of 
human  actions,  and  thus  solve  the  problem  or 
human  life. 

If  it  is  thought  proper  to  continue  the  study  of 
Drawing  through  any  part  of  this  period,  it  may 
include  the  principles  of  Shading  and  Perspective. 
Mechanical  and  Architectural  Drawing  might,  in 
some  cases,  be  taught.  The  time  to  be  devoted  to 
Music  must  depend  upon  other  circumstances  than 
those  which  arise  from  its  nature.  This,  too,  is  the 
case  with  other  arts,  such  as  Painting,  whicn  are 
considered  more  ornamental  than  useful.  From 
the  age  of  sixteen  to  twenty-one,  the  realities  of  life 
begin  to  press  themselves  upon  the  attention  of  the 
young  man  or  the  young  woman.  They  select  a 
profession,  or  seek  to  prepare  themselves  for  some 
kind  of  business.  They  feel  the  need  of  a  profes 
sional  education ;  and  such  an  education  aims  not 
to  impart  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  but  skill  in 
the  arts.  The  highest  of  all  arts  is  the  art  of  living 
well,  and  to  this  art  all  science  contributes.  Excep 
tions  apparently  to  the  common  order  of  things  are 
the  gifted  sons  of  Genius  —  the  great  Artists  of  the 
world.  To  them  we  are  indebted  for  the  noblest 
creations  of  the  human  mind ;  and,  though  but  one 
such  person — poet  or  prophet — appear  in  a  century, 
a  broad  system  of  education  cannot  be  unmindful 

of  the  great  fact. 
11 


122  BUILDING    THE    FOUNDATION. 

What  has  now  been  written  is  intended  to  intro 
duce  a  discussion  of  those  detailed  methods  of 
instruction  of  which  it  is  the  special  object  of  this 
work  to  treat.  In  accordance  with  the  classifica 
tion  of  studies  already  made,  the  remaining  part  of 
the  volume  will  be  divided  into  seven  chapters  as 
follows : 

I.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 
II.  INSTRUCTION  IN  LANGUAGE. 

III.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  FORMAL  SCIENCES. 

IV.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  EMPIRICAL  SCIENCES 
V.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  RATIONAL  SCIENCES. 

VI.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  HISTORICAL  SCIENCES. 
VII.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  ARTS. 


CHAPTER  1. 

INSTRUCTION   IN    THE    ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

What  is  meant  by  the  elements  of  knowledge  has 
i  ready  been  explained.  The  elements  of  each 
branch  of  knowledge,  or  of  each  class  of  branches, 
might  be  treated  of  in  connection  with  the  discus- 
sis, n  of  the  methods  of  teaching  that  branch  or  that 
ctass  of  branches  ;  but  practically  these  elements  are 
noC  separated  but  combined  in  early  education.  A 
child  cannot  study  the  sciences,  but  he  can  study 
the  general  facts  which  form  their  bases. 

Ti.e  whole  subject  will  be  discussed  in  two  sec 
tions  as  follows : 

I.  Informal  Instruction  in  the  Elements  of 

Knowledge. 

II.   Formal    Instruction  in    the    Elements  of 
Knowledge. 

"Unaer  the  first  Head  it  is  intended  to  speak  of 
thai  irwruction  in  the  elements  of  knowledge  which 
a  cr.ila  acquires  from  parents,  companions,  and  the 
circanifltances  that  surround  him,  without  any 
special  teacher  or  any  set  lessons.  Under  the  second 
the  design  is  to  discuss  that  kind  of  instruction 
which  is  now  generally  known  by  the  name  of 
Object  Lessons. 

(123) 


124        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

I  Informal  Instruction  in  the  Elements  of 
Knowledge. — How  interesting  to  the  educator  is 
the  infant  soul  in  its  efforts  to  attain  freedom ! 
"Wrapt  in  sleep,  how  softly  it  awakens  to  a  state  of 
conscious  existence !  Closely  folded  within  the 
depths  whence  it  comes,  how  gently  its  tender 
germs  seek  the  light!  An  angel  sent  from  God, 
with  what  seeming  hesitation  it  sets  its  delicate 
feet  upon  the  rough  earth  ! 

We  know  not  what  impressions  a  child  may  have 
received  before  that  time,  hut  the  beginning  of  its 
instruction  may  be  dated  from  the  moment  it  knows 
itself — from  the  moment  it  shows,  by  looks  or 
actions,  that  it  recognizes  something  apart  from  its 
own  being.  Commencing  at  this  tender  age,  a  child 
must  receive  instruction  suited  in  kind  and  method 
to  its  capacity.  Children  exhibit  in  their  mental 
manifestations  and  predilections  the  kind  of  instruc 
tion  and  training  which  they  need.  There  are 
internal  impulses  which  prompt  them  to  satisfy 
their  mental  cravings.  By  carefully  watching  the 
outward  play  of  these  impulses,  we  may  be  guided 
in  selecting  the  most  appropriate  means  and  methods 
of  educating  the  young.  "Follow  the  indications 
of  nature,"  said  Rousseau.  In  order  to  make  the 
subject  as  definite  as  possible,  the  most  important 
educational  inferences  which  can  be  derived  in  this 
way,  will  be  expressed  in  a  series  of  propositions: 

1.  CHILDREN  SHOULD  BE  ALLOWED  AMPLE  OPPOR 
TUNITIES  FOR  EXERCISING  THEIR  SENSES.  —  A  child 
can  exercise  the  senses  of  touching,  tasting,  and 
smelling  before  it  can  see  and  hear.  Of  the  two 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  125 

last  named  senses  I  am  not  sure  which  is  first  awak 
ened,  that  of  seeing  or  hearing;  but  when  a  few 
weeks  old  an  infant  will  look  at  bright  cHors  and 
seem  pleased  with  certain  sounds.  When  a  little 
older,  it  will  follow  with  its  gaze  the  motions  cf 
objects  which  attract  its  attention,  and  smile  at  the 
sound  of  voices  or  of  music.  Soon  after  it  learns  to 
hold  and  handle  things,  and  to  play  with  them,  and 
all  the  senses  begin  to  develop  themselves  rapidly. 

The  maternal  instincts  of  mothers  generally  teach 
them  how  to  supply  the  intellectual  wants  of  their 
young  children.  They  suffer  them  to  gaze  at  the 
lamp,  or  the  open  fire,  at  the  sunlight  as  passing 
through  openings  in  the  window-blinds  it  plays 
npon  the  floor  or  about  the  curtains,  at  the  bright 
colors  of  flowers,  buttons,  or  clothing.  They  allow 
them  to  look  through  the  casement  at  what  they 
can  see  in  yard,  garden,  street,  or  field.  They 
amuse  them  with  talking  and  singing,  with  rattles, 
little  bells,  or  gingling  keys.  They  place  in  their 
hands  numerous  playthings  differing  in  size,  shape, 
texture,  and  color.  They  let  them  look  at  animals 
in  motion,  vehicles  passing  on  the  highway,  and 
trees  moved  by  the  wind.  No  better  mode  of 
awakening  the  slumbering  intellect  of  a  child  than 
this  could  be  pointed  out.  It  needs  but  to  be 
applied  with  more  intelligence.  Mothers  might 
place  before  their  infants  a  great  variety  of  objects 
presenting  marked  contrasts  in  color  and  sound; 
they  might  select  and  change  their  playthings  with 
more  judgment,  and  make  more  attractive  the  world 
of  nature  about  them. 

The  mental  growth  of  a  child  from  the  time  it 
11* 


126         ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

becomes  conscious  of  the  existence  of  objects  around 
it  until  the  time  it  can  walk  is  truly  wonderful.  It8 
power  of  discriminating  colors,  sounds,  and  consist 
encies  is  greatly  increased.  Its  senses  are  rapidly 
developed.  It  becomes  alive  to  all  that  is  passing 
around  it,  and  exhibits  a  strong  inclination  to  touch 
and  handle  all  objects  within  its  reach.  It  learns  to 
walk,  and  then  commences  the  active  exercise  of  its 
newly  found  powers.  Drawers  are  opened,  baskets 
upset,  cupboards  and  closets  explored,  flowers 
plucked.  The  child  seeks  objects  about  the 
kitchen,  parlor,  shop,  yard,  garden,  and,  if  allowed, 
on  the  highway  or  in  the  street.  It  is  wide  awake, 
and  knowledge  seems  to  be  taken  in  through  every 
pore. 

This  is  a  precious  season  in  which  to  sow  the  seeds 
of  knowledge.  Mothers  especially  at  this  time 
enjoy  opportunities  of  pouring  instruction  into  the 
opening  mind.  Says  Harriet  Martineau,  "If  the 
mother  is  at  work,  and  the  children  are  running  in 
and  out  of  the  garden,  it  is  only  saying  to  the  little 
toddler,  4  Now  bring  me  a  blue  flower ;  now  bring  me 
a  yellow  flower;  now  bring  me  a  green  leaf.'  At 
another  time  she  will  ask  for  a  round  stone ;  or  a 
thick  stick  ;  or  a  thin  stick.  And  sometimes  she 
will  blow  a  feather,  and  let  it  fall  again  ;  or  she  will 
blow  a  dandelion-head  all  to  pieces,  and  quite  away. 
If  she  is  wise  she  will  let  the  child  alone,  to  try  its 
own  little  experiments,  and  learn  for  itself  what  is 
hard,  and  what  is  soft;  what  is  heavy,  and  light;  hot, 
and  cold ;  and  what  it  can  do  with  its  little  limbs 
and  quick  senses.  Taking  care,  of  course,  that  it 
does  not  injure  itself,  and  that  it  has  objects  within 


INFORMAL   INSTRUCTION.  127 

reach  in  sufficient  variety,  she  can  do  no  better,  at 
this  season  of  its  life,  than  to  let  it  be  busv  in  its 
own  way.  I  saw  a  little  fellow,  one  day,  intently 
occupied  for  a  whole  breakfast- time,  and  some  time 
afterwards,  in  trying  to  put  the  key  of  the  house- 
door  into  the  key-hole  of  the  tea-caddy.  "When  he 
gave  the  matter  up,  and  not  before,  his  mother  helped 
him  to  see  why  he  could  not  do  it.  If  she  had  taken 
the  door-key  from  him  at  first,  he  would  have  missed 
a  valuable  lesson.  At  this  period  of  existence,  the 
children  of  rich  and  poor  have,  or  may  have,  about 
equal  advantages,  under  the  care  of  sensible  parents. 
They  can  be  busy  about  anything.  There  is  nothing 
that  cannot  be  made  a  plaything  of,  and  a  certain 
means  of  knowledge,  if  the  faculties  be  awake.  If 
the  child  be  dull,  it  must,  of  course,  be  tempted  to 
play.  If  the  faculties  be  in  their  natural  state  of 
liveliness,  the  mother  has  only  to  be  aware  that  the 
little  creature  must  be  busy  while  it  is  awake,  and 
to  see  that  it  has  variety  enough  of  things  (the  sim 
pler  the  better)  to  handle,  and  look  at,  and  listen  to, 
and  experiment  upon." 

2.  CHILDREN  SHOULD  BE  INSTRUCTED  IN  LEARNING  TO 
TALK. — Children  are  characterized  by  talkativeness. 
They  possess  a  wonderful  capacity  to  learn  words 
and  to  form  them  into  sentences.  When  five  years 
of  age,  children  have  been  known  to  speak  with 
considerable  fluency  five  different  languages. 

The  use  of  language  renders  the  acquirement  of 
knowledge  more  easy  and  rapid,  if  it  is  not  essential 
to  it;  and  in  this,  probably,  may  be  found  the  rea 
son  why  children  are  endowed  with  the  remarkable 


128        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

power  just  referred  to.  A  child  likes  to  know  the 
names  of  all  he  sees,  and  is  constantly  asking, 
" What's  this?"  and  "What's  that?"  lie  prattles 
all  day  with  father,  mother,  brother,  sister,  servant, 
playmate  ;  and,  when  no  one  will  listen,  he  talks  to 
his  cat,  bird,  dog,  toys,  or  to  himself.  It  is  just  as 
natural  for  him  to  do  this  as  it  is  for  a  plant  to  grow, 
or  a  bird  to  sing  ;  and  his  nature  could  not  indicate 
more  clearly  that  it  is  the  duty  of  parents  or  teachers 
to  instruct  him  in  learning  to  talk. 

A  child  in  learning  to  talk  performs  two  distinct 
operations  :  the  first,  one  of  association  ;  the  second, 
one  of  imitation.  He  first  associates  certain  verbal 
utterances  with  particular  things  or  thoughts,  and 
afterwards  learns  to  imitate  them.  In  learning  a 
word,  therefore,  a  child  must  hear  it  correctly  ut 
tered,  and  then  learn  to  utter  it  correctly  himself. 

Instruction  in  learning  to  talk  can  be  given  to  a 
child  in  two  ways :  first,  indirectly,  by  good  ex 
ample  ;  second,  directly,  by  correcting  his  errors 
and  presenting  him  proper  models  for  imitation. 

Parents  should  be  careful,  as  far  as  practicable,  to 
suffer  their  children  to  listen  to  none  but  pure  and 
proper  language,  for  they  will  imitate  the  language 
to  which  they  listen.  If  the  words  they  hear  spoken 
are  bad  words,  or  the  sentences  uttered  in  their 
presence  are  inelegant  or  ungrammatical,  no  care  in 
after  life  can  completely  correct  the  improper  habits 
of  speech  thus  formed.  In  order  to  prevent  their 
children  from  forming  such  habits,  parents  should 
use  good  language  in  talking  with  them  or  in  their 
presence,  and  be  careful  in  the  selection  of  servants, 
governesses,  and  others  with  whom  they  come  in 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  129 

contact.  Especially  should  this  care  be  exercised 
in  the  choice  of  companions  and  playmates.  A 
single  afternoon  spent  in  play  with  those  who  use 
them,  will  serve  to  introduce  into  a  child's  vocab 
ulary  quite  a  list  of  bad  words  and  uncouth  ex 
pressions.  His  taste  is  thus  blunted,  and  his  heart 
may  be  poisoned.  The  Gracchi,  it  is  said,  were 
indebted  to  their  mother's  conversation  for  their 
eloquence  ;  and  Alexander  could  never  get  rid  of 
the  defects  of  manner,  gait,  and  speech  which  he  con 
tracted  in  his  infancy  from  his  instructor,  Leonidas. 
Every  one,  indeed,  must  have  noticed  the  difference 
in  the  language  of  children  whose  parents  and  asso 
ciates  exhibited  good  taste  in  their  speech,  and  that 
of  those  who  did  not  possess  this  characteristic.  The 
scanty  vocabulary  and  the  rough  forms  of  speech 
which  characterize  the  poor  peasant-child,  whose 
parents  are  ignorant,  contrast  strongly  with  the  full 
flow  of  words  and  finely  formed  sentences  wrhich 
distinguish  the  child  whose  parents  are  educated 
and  refined. 

In  addition  to  this  indirect  but  most  effective 
teaching  by  example,  parents  should  take  advantage 
of  their. capability  of  learning  words  so  readily  to 
impart  to  their  children  mo^  directly  certain  kinds 
-  of  instruction  in  language.  It  may  be  done  by 
attentively  noticing  their  articulation  and  their  im 
proper  forms  of  expression,  and  CA^efully  correcting 
them.  For  this  time  and  patience  will  be  required. 
The  corrections  should  be  made  mere  in  the  manner 
of  play  than  of  formal  instruction.  Ths  child  could 
not  appreciate  reasons  if  given.  The  parent,  nothing 
the  fault,  should  present  the  correct  modc\ 


130         ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

playfully  induce  the  child  to  imitate  it,  once,  twice, 
or  as  many  times  as  may  be  necessary,  until  the 
difficulty  shall  be  overcome. 

At  two  years  of  age,  a  child  will  understand  little 
stories,  if  related  or  read  to  him  in  simple  language, 
and  such  exercises  furnish  valuable  lessons.  After 
receiving  them,  children  immediately  exhibit  in 
their  conversation  the  forms  of  expression  thus 
acquired.  I  cannot  recommend  these  exercises  of 
conversing  and  reading  with  children  too  highly. 
They  should  be  engaged  in  every  day.  Those  mis- 
pronunciations  and  misconstructions,  called  "baby- 
talk,"  however,  are  generally  both  hurtful  to  the 
child  and  unbecoming  to  the  parent. 

Children  can  be  taught  to  speak  in  learning  to 
sing  or  in  hearing  others  sing.  They  are  nearly 
always  fond  of  music,  and  will  gladly  commit  little 
songs  and  hymns,  and  thus  improve  their  speech 
while  they  cheer  the  household  with  their  joyful 
melodies. 

3.  CHILDREN  SHOULD  HAVE  THEIR  APPETITE  FOR 
KNOWLEDGE  GRATIFIED.  —  It  has  already  been  shown 
that  children  should  be  allowed  to  exercise  their 
senses,  and  it  will  now  be  made  equally  evident 
that  their  appetite  for  knowledge  should  be  grati 
fied.  They  should  not  only  be  encouraged  to  use 
their  senses  for  the  purpose  of  using  them,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  gaining  knowledge.  With  very 
young  children  the  discipline  of  the  senses  is  the 
principal  end  aimed  at,  but  in  a  short  time  the 
attainment  of  knowledge  assumes  greater  impor 
tance. 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  131 

Children  exhibit  great  curiosity.  They  like  to 
see  things,  to  handle  and  examine  them.  They 
stand  in  raptures  when  papa  opens  his  watch,  or 
mamma  her  drawers,  for  them.  All  their  waking 
hours  are  devoted  to  looking  at  things,  playing 
with  them,  or  tearing  them  to  pieces.  These  rest 
less  inner  promptings  are  natural  to  children,  and 
indicate  an  educational  want  which  ought  not  to  be 
overlooked.  The  searching  curiosity  goes  out 
through  the  active  senses  and  returns  laden  with 
rich  stores  for  the  capacious  memory.  A  beautiful 
correlation  exists  between  the  functions  of  the 
curiosity  which  prompts,  the  senses  which  are  the 
instruments,  and  the  memory  which  receives  and 
retains,  and  the  order  of  their  development.  This 
whole  mental  apparatus  seems  nicely  adjusted  to 
bring  about  the  end  of  collecting  multitudes  of 
facts,  and  storing  them  away  in  the  memory  to  be 
eventually  classified,  and  made  to  constitute  the 
data  for  scientific  generalizations. 

The  appetite  children  have  for  knowledge  can  be 
gratified  by  conversing  with  them.  The  names  and 
qualities  of  things  can  be  talked  about — their  color, 
size,  form,  weight,  number,  uses.  Children  ask 
many  questions,  and  these,  whenever  possible, 
should  be  answered.  Parents  often  rebuke  their 
children  for  asking  them  questions,  but  this  is  to  do 
them  great  wrong,  since  it  serves  to  check  the 
growth  of  the  intellect,  and  may  stop  it  altogether. 
If  parents  would  spend  a  short  time  each  day  in 
conversation  with  their  children  much  valuable 
information  could  be  imparted  to  them.  The  Lest 
naethod  of  presenting  knowledge  on  such  occasions 


132  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

is  that  of  relating  incidents,  describing  objects,  or 
telling  stories.  Children  will  listen  to  such  narra 
tions  with  breathless  attention,  and  receive  from 
them  lasting  impressions.  Quite  similar  to  conver 
sations  of  this  kind  is  the  practice  of  reading  suit 
able  books  to  children.  This  practice  may  com 
mence  some  time  before  the  children  themselves  can 
read.  Parents  may  read,  and  afterwards  make 
what  they  have  read  a  topic  of  conversation.  If  the 
selections  be  appropriate,  and  the  conversations  be 
judiciously  conducted,  parents  can  have  the  satis 
faction  of  seeing  the  minds  of  their  children  expand 
like  opening  buds.  Not  the  least  important  good 
derived  from  such  exercises  is  their  influence  upon 
the  character  and  opinions  of  children. 

The  appetite  children  have  for  knowledge  can  be 
gratified  by  showing  them  interesting  objects  in 
mature  and  art.  They  may  be  made  familiar  with 
many  minerals,  flowers,  trees,  birds,  reptiles,  insects. 
What  valuable  lessons  they  could  learn  about  bees, 
ants,  spiders,  beetles,  frogs !  With  what  interest 
they  would  examine  an  ant-hill,  an  old  hornet's  nest, 
a,  spader's  web,  or  the  chrysalis  of  a  butterfly  !  How 
much  knowledge  they  could  gather  in  walks  over 
fields,  through  woods,  along  streams !  Let  there 
be  pointed  out  to  them,  growing  plants  and  ripening 
fruit,  birds  building  their  nests,  fishes  sporting  in 
the  water,  animals  caring  for  their  young,  the  shift 
ing  clouds,  the  many-colored  rainbow,  the  dew-drops 
as  they  glisten  upon  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  morn 
ing  sunlight.  No  suitable  opportunity  should  be 
lost  of  taking  them  to  mills,  factories,  workshops, 
menageries,  and  museums.  The  Stereoscope  aiicl 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  133 

the  Magic  Lantern  may  be  used  with  much  profit 
in  exhibiting  to  them  the  scenery  of  distant  countries, 
their  cities,  buildings,  manners,  and  customs.  En 
gravings,  too,  may  be  made  a  most  valuable  means 
of  instruction.  Children  love  pictures,  and  nothing 
pleases  them  better  than  to  be  allowed  the  privilege 
of  examining  a  picture-book.  There  is  no  mode 
probably  in  which  a  child  can  be  taught  so  much  in 
the  same  time  as  by  means  of  pictures.  The  best 
pictures  for  the  purpose  are  those  -vhich  represent 
animated  nature — scenes  of  life  among  animals  or 
among  men.  Opportunities  of  pointing  out  the  form, 
number,  color,  and  other  properties  of  the  things 
they  see  should  not  be  overlooked.  Much  valuable 
instruction  of  this  kind  can  be  imparted  incidentally. 
The  appetite  children  have  for  knowledge  can  be 
gratified  by  furnishing  them  with  proper  toys  and 
playthings.  A  child  needs  play  as  much  as  he  needs 
food.  He  must  have  it,  and  this  disposition  can  be 
turned  to  good  account  mentally  as  well  as  physically. 
Whenever  possible,  a  suitable  apartment  should  be 
arranged  in  every  house  in  which  there  are  children, 
for  a  play-room  where  they  might  be  allowed  to  run, 
jump,  and  play  without  danger  to  themselves  or 
disturbance  to  others.  This  play-room  ought  to  be 
provided  with  swings,  hobby-horses,  little  wagons, 
jumping-ropes,  balls,  blocks  of  many  shapes  and 
sizes,  and  some  with  prints  of  animals,  letters,  &c., 
upon  them,  wheels,  beads  of  different  colors  arranged 
on  strings,  blackboards  and  chalk — anything  indeed 
of  which  an  interesting  play  can  be  made.  To  make 
these  plays  most  valuable,  some  older  person  must 
assist  in  planning  the  plays  and  superintend  the 
12 


134  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

childi^n  in  playing.  In  fine  weather  the  plays  may 
take  place  in  the  open  air.  A  yard  with  a  sward  of 
grass  is  the  best  place  for  them.  The  Infant  Schools 
of  Europe  have  gardens  or  yards  attached  to  them 
in  which  the  children  sing,  and  dance,  and  play, 
under  the  constant  care  and  direction  of  teachers 
whose  presence  is  no  restraint  upon  the  fun,  hut 
who  seize  the  fit  opportunity  to  intermingle  instruc 
tion  with  it.  In  writing  what  has  just  been  said,  I 
have  had  in  mind  quite  young  children.  Some 
additional  playthings  may  be  provided  for  those  who 
are  older.  Among  these  toy-towns  with  different 
kinds  of  buildings,  people  and  animals  walking  in 
the  streets,  vehicles  passing  along,  &c. ;  slates  and 
pencils;  cup-and-ball ;  paper  for  cutting  pictures 
out  of;  clay  for  modeling  figures  ;  tea-sets  and  house- 
furniture  in  miniature ;  letters  and  maps  cut  into 
sections  ;  the  Chinese  puzzle  ;  blocks  of  great  variety 
and  shape,  with  which  stools,  chairs,  tables,  houses, 
monuments,  towers,  castles,  churches,  bridges,  &c., 
could  be  made.  For  amusement  out-of-doors,  balls, 
kites,  hoops,  bows  and  arrows,  carts,  wheelbarrows, 
garden  tools,  quoits,  and  other  things  of  the  same 
kind  are  proper.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  it  is 
expected  that  any  one  family  will  procure  all  the 
articles  mentioned,  the  design  is  only  to  name  those 
out  of  which  selections  may  be  made.  Toys  and 
playthings  should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key,  and 
children  be  allowed  at  one  time  only  those  articles 
which  they  may  choose  or  which  may  be  considered 
proper  for  them.  Frequent  changes  will  keep  them 
ever  new.  Besides,  children  should  be  allowed  to 
exercise  their  own  ingenuity  in  inventing  means  of 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  135 

enjoyment.  It  will  be  observed  that  our  list  of  toys 
and  playthings  includes  only  those  which  may  be 
made  use  of  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  and 
discipline,  and  these  are  the  only  kinds  I  would 
permit  children  to  handle.  Space  need  not  be  taken 
up  in  describing  in  detail  the  manner  of  mingling 
instruction  with  play,  for  after  what  has  already 
been  said  the  instincts  of  those  who  sympathize  with 
children  will  guide  them  correctly. 

4.  CHILDREN  SHOULD  BE  FURNISHED  OCCASIONS  FOR 
APPLYING  THEIR  POWERS  OF  KNOWING  WHAT  IS  TRUE, 
BEAUTIFUL,  AND  GOOD. — Truth  has  been  denned  as 
the  correspondence  between  thought  and  its  objects. 
There  are  different  kinds  of  truth,  but  no  classifica 
tion  of  them  is  needed  here.  The  truths  with  which 
a  child  becomes  first  familiar  may  be  called  truths 
of  perception.  He  learns  by  means  of  his  senses 
that  iron  is  hard,  that  ice  is  cold,  that  roses  are  red, 
that  birds  sing,  that  plants  grow  green  in  the  sun 
shine,  that  animals  need  food,  that  water  seeks  a 
level,  that  the  whole  is  equal  to  all  its  parts ;  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  widen  his  experience, 
for  this  will  fix  in  his  mind  the  correspondence  be 
tween  thought  and  thing.  The  stories  children  are 
so  apt  to  tell  arise  mainly  from  defective  observa 
tion  or  from  the  mistake  they  sometimes  make  of 
supposing  that  the  pictures  of  their  fancy  are  the  per 
ceptions  of  their  senses.  A  child  that  comes  to  his 
mother  and  says  that  he  saw  a  cow  in  the  field  that 
has  five  legs,  or  that  he  talked  with  his  grandfather 
wno  is  a  hundred  miles  away,  does  nothing  at  which 
a  parent  should  be  alarmed.  Habits  of  correct  ob- 


136  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

servation  will  make  it  all  right.  A  judicious  mother 
wouid  take  her  child  by  the  hand  and  go  and  look 
at  the  cow,  or  ask  him  to  find  the  place  where  he 
met  his  grandfather,  and  a  good  lesson  would  be 
taught  him.  Always  set  a  child  right  when  he  says 
a  thing  that  is  \vrong,  and  never  fail  to  give  him 
every  chance  of  learning  what  is  true.  A  very 
young  child  can  recognize  the  difference  between 
truth  and  falsehood.  If  his  brother  tell  him  that 
his  ball  has  rolled  behind  the  door  and  he  does  not 
find  it  there,  or  that  a  bright  penny  is  in  one  hand 
when  he  finds  it  in  the  other,  he  shows  by  his  looks 
that  he  understands  the  deception  that  has  been 
practiced  upon  him.  I  am  firmly  convinced  that 
it  is  in  great  measure  owing  to  the  deceptions  of 
which  he  is  the  witness  on  the  part  of  servants,  play 
mates,  brothers  and  sisters,  and  even  parents,  that  a 
child  learns  to  tell  falsehoods.  How  can  he  remain 
pure  and  innocent  while  he  beholds  constantly  about 
him  those  who  practice  exaggeration,  deception,  and 
falsehood  ?  Let  all  conduct  in  the  presence  of  a 
child  be  open  and  sincere,  let  all  words  spoken  be 
fore  him  be  honest  and  truthful ;  and,  furnished 
with  such  occasions,  he  wrill  not  only  learn  what  is 
true  but  be  truthful.  One  who  is  himself  truthful 
will  trust  others,  and  this  is  the  ground  upon  which 
rests  our  earliest  and  purest  faith. 

Children  appreciate  the  beautiful  in  objects  at  a 
much  earlier  age  than  is  generally  supposed.  I 
have  noticed  well-marked  evidences  of  such  appre 
ciation  at  the  age  of  two  years.  This  taste  for  the 
beautiful,  like  the  early  buddings  of  a  tender  plant, 
requires  careful  culture.  The  attention  of  children 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  137 

may  be  easily  called  to  beautiful  flowers,  trees  and 
buds  ;  to  the  rippling  brook,  the  towering  moun 
tain,  the  rising  or  the  setting  sun  ;  to  pattering 
rain-drops,  falling  snow-flakes,  and  drifting  clouds. 
Nature  is  everywhere  full  of  beauty,  and  it  may  be 
used  with  an  unsparing  hand  to  make  glad  the 
hearte  of  children.  Art,  too,  has  beauties  which  are 
attractive  to  the  young.  Of  course,  they  cannot  ap 
preciate  a  fine  painting  or  piece  of  statuary ;  but 
they  a*e  keenly  alive  to  what  might  be  called  sur 
face  beauty — that  which  depends  upon  color,  form, 
proportion,  motion,  and  like  qualities.  Let  their 
thirsty  spirit  drink  at  these  fountains  until  they  come 
to  find  purer  draughts  deeper  down.  If  every  child 
could  have  a  bed  of  flowers  to  plant  and  cultivate, 
or  a  pet  bird  or  rabbit  to  care  for,  it  would  do  much 
to  improve  his  taste  and  awaken  feelings  of  ten 
derness  and  love. 

Clearly  there  is  a  power  within  us  which  God  de 
signed  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  between  right 
and  wrong.  "We  may  not  make  good  use  of  it  and 
accept  error  for  truth,  but  that  does  not  invalidate 
the  certainty  of  the  great  fact  that  the  faculty  exists. 
Young  children  can  discriminate  between  good  acts 
and  bad  acts,  and  this  power  they  seem  ready  to 
apply  when  proper  occasions  are  presented.  If  the 
good  is  constantly  exemplified  in  the  conduct  of 
those  who  surround  a  child  and  whom  he  loves,  his 
sense  of  right  and  wrong  must  be  quickened  by  the 
exercise  it  would  receive.  Would  that  all  parents 
felt  the  great  importance  of  this  fact !  Besides,  puins 
can  be  taken  to  point  out  good  acts  to  a  child — acts 
of  honesty,  justice,  kindness,  mercy,  gratitude,  pa- 

12* 


1S8  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

triotism.  Life  in  every  neighborhood  has  incidents 
of  this  kind,  and  history  is  full  of  them.  Let  his 
conscience  be  kept  active  by  frequent  appeals  to  it, 
and  the  child  will  grow  daily  in  virtue. 

What  is  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  is  predi 
cated  upon  the  assumption  that  the  human  mind 
has  the  power  in  itself  to  determine  what  is  true, 
beautiful,  and  good,  and  that  the  duty  of  the  in 
structor  consists  only  in  multiplying  occasions  for 
its  exercise.  But  to  arrange  these  occasions  so  as 
to  answer  their  end  is  a  work  so  delicate  and  difficult 
that  none  but  the  most  accomplished  teachers  can 
perform  it  skilfully.  Something,  however,  may  be 
done  by  all  who  love  children  and  sincerely  desire 
to  have  them  become  virtuous  and  happy  themselves 
and  a  blessing  to  mankind. 

5.  CHILDREN  SHOULD  BE  ALLOWED  FACILITIES  FOR 

PRACTICE  IN  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  ARTS. The  meil- 

tal  nature  of  children  is  characterized  by  vigorous 
imitative  powers  and  a  lively  fancy.  This  leads 
them  to  imitate  and  contrive  things,  and  gives  zest 
to  many  kinds  of  play  in  which  they  delight. 

A  slate  and  pencil  or  blackboard  and  chalk  may 
be  made  very  useful  for  the  purpose  of  preparing 

children  to  write  and  draw.     At  first,  a  child  might 

& 

be  allowed  to  make  such  marks  as  his  fancy  prompted 
or  he  might  be  encouraged  to  imitate  simple  figures 
of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  If  any  one  desires  to  see 
how  much  a  child  is  interested  in  this  kind  of  work, 
let  him  draw  while  the  child  looks  on,  the  picture 
of  a  cat,  a  dog,  a  house,  a  stage-coach,  and  witness 
the  effort  he  will  make  to  imitate  it.  If  a  little 


INFORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  139 

judicious  help  be  given,  a  child  will  spend  willingly 
an  hour  or  more  every  day  at  such  exercises. 

Like  instruction  may  be  derived  from  other  em 
ployments  in  which  children  greatly  delight,  such 
as  coloring  pictures  or  cutting  them  from  paper  or 
pasteboard ;  moulding  various  kinds  of  objects  from 
terra  cotta,  such  as  animals,  flowers,  fruit,  dishes, 
boats,  &c. ;  building  with  suitable  blocks,  houses, 
castles,  bridges,  &c.,  or  making  of  them  tables,  chairs, 
bedsteads,  &c. ;  dressing  dolls  and  arranging  doll- 
houses  ;  imitating  the  several  varieties  of  work 
which  they  see  going  on  in  the  kitchen,  in  the  shop, 
and  on  the  form ;  and  I  recommend  them  all  as 
means  of  instruction  which  may  be  made  very  valu 
able  by  judicious  management.  Much  information 
can  be  furnished  children  likewise,  by  allowing 
them  to  visit  shops  and  manufactories  and  to  see 
machinery  in  operation. 

Every  father  who  has  young  sons  would  find  it 
much  to  their  advantage  to  provide  a  shop  in  which 
they  could  work,  and  supply  it  with  suitable  tools. 
Sets  of  children's  tools  can  be  bought  for  a  few 
dollars,  and  their  value  in  making  boys  more  inge 
nious  and  active  can  scarcely  be  calculated.  Girls 
can  derive  similar  benefit  from  needle-work,  crochet- 
work,  and  embroidery.  Whatever  may  be  their  cir 
cumstances,  children  should  learn  to  work.  Ability 
to  handle  tools  will  not  prove  amiss  in  any  sphere 
of  life. 

Without  such  instruction  as  that  now  indicated, 
the  productive  powers  of  children  would  remain 
undeveloped,  and  all  thinking  persons  must  acknow 
ledge  that  this  would  be  a  grave  educational  error. 


140  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

II.  Formal  Instruction  in  the  Elements  of 
Knowledge. — The  preceding  section  has  given  hints 
as  to  the  kind  of  instruction  children  ought  to  receive 
in  their  younger  years,  and  as  to  the  methods  by 
which  it  should  be  imparted.  This  informal  or  inci 
dental  instruction  must  be  continued  as  the  child 
advances  in  years  and  acquirements,  but  in  addition 
he  must  receive  other  instruction  more  formal  and 
systematic.  He  must  be  trained  to  more  regular 
habits  of  study.  He  must  learn  to  work  as  well  as 
play.  Knowledge  should  not  merely  be  presented 
to  him  in  disconnected  fragments  but  in  regular 
lessons. 

Thinking  men  accustomed  to  observe  tne  mental 
nature  of  children  were  long  ago  convinced  that 
the  dry  and  tedious  methods  of  hearing  them  give 
the  names  of  letters,  and  spell  and  pronounce  words, 
as  usually  practiced  in  Primary  Schools,  could  not 
be  the  best  to  awaken  interest  in  study  or  develop 
the  powers  of  the  mind.  Children  have  a  natural 
appetite  for  knowledge,  but  it  must  be  presented  in 
such  a  form  as  adapts  it  to  the  condition  of  their 
mental  digestive-apparatus,  or  it  will  cloy  that  appe 
tite  instead  of  satisfying  it. 

As  we  have  seen,  a  child's  first  intellectual  lessons 
are  learned  wholly  in  connection  with  objects. 
When  older,  if  allowed  to  follow  his  instinctive 
promptings,  objects  will  still  engage  his  attention 
and  supply  the  object-matter  about  which  he  thinks; 
and  it  is  obviously  unwise  to  divert  his  intellectual 
faculties  from  their  natural  course  in  obtaining 
knowledge.  The  lessons  constructed  in  view  of 
this  theory  are  generally  known  by  the  name  o* 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  141 

Object  Lessons ;  and  Object  Lessons  may  be  defined 
as  lessons  designed  to  teach  the  Elements  of  Knowledge 
by  the  use  of  objects. 

It  is  proposed  to  consider : 

1.  THE  DESIGN  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

2.  THE  MATTER  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

3.  THE    PREPARATION     FOR     IMPARTING     OBJECT 

LESSONS. 

4.  THE  METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  OBJECT  LESSONS. 

5.  THE    DANGERS   TO  WHICH  THE   OBJECT-LESSON 

SYSTEM  is  EXPOSED. 

1.  THE  DESIGN  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS. — The  general 
design  of  Object  Lessons  is  made  sufficiently  plain 
in  the  definition  just  given,  but  it  may  be  well  to 
state  it  a  little  more  in  detail. 

Object  Lessons  supply  a  want  in  elementary  in 
struction.  ISTo  one  can  be  mistaken  as  to  the  lessons 
of  which  children  are  mos.t  fond.  Their  intense 
curiosity,  their  active  senses,  their  capacious  memo 
ries,  and  their  great  loquacity  indicate  very  clearly 
the  direction  in  which  they  can  be  best  educated. 
Little  is  done,  however,  in  most  schools  to  take 
advantage  of  these  vigorous  manifestations  of  certain 
mental  faculties.  Pupils  in  our  Primary  Schools 
are  made  to  sit  down,  shut  themselves  away  from 
the  world  of  objects  in  which  they  might  find  so 
much  to  interest  and  delight  them,  and  engage  in 
the  dull  work  of  learning  to  read,  write,  and  cipher 
— dull,  because  abstract.  Reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic  must  be  learned,  and  may  be  learned  to 


142       ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

some  extent  in  the  Primary  School ;  but  neither  of 
these  branches,  nor  others  like  them,  can  meet  the 
pressing  educational  wants  of  children.  The  true 
philosophy  of  education  teaches  that  advantage 
should  be  taken  of  all  mental  capabilities  at  the 
time,  in  the  manner,  and  with  respect  to  the  degree, 
in  which  they  manifest  themselves.  This  wise 
mental  economy  is  much  disregarded  in  the  common 
methods  of  teaching;  and  the  quick  perceptive 
powers  of  children,  their  strong  memory,  and  their 
lively  fancy  are  made  much  less  use  of  than  they 
might  be  in  imparting  knowledge,  and  are  suffered 
to  remain  almost  altogether  without  systematic  dis 
cipline.  Children  might  learn  much  more  and 
learn  it  in  a  much  more  grateful  manner,  they  might 
receive  much  more  mental  discipline  and  receive  it 
much  more  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  their 
minds,  if  a  well-devised  system  of  Object  Lessons 
were  substituted  for  the  usual  course  of  elementary 
instruction.  A  child  is  a  germ  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  educator,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  supply  the  con 
ditions  necessary  to  its  full  development.  No  poten 
tiality  of  its  nature  should  be  allowed  to  lie  dormant, 
no  talent  should  be  buried,  and  unjust  will  be  the 
steward  who  violates  his  trust. 

Object  Lessons  impart  valuable  knowledge  in  a 
form  best  suited  to  the  capacity  of  children.  Object 
Lessons  teach  things,  facts,  phenomena,  words,  in 
short,  the  elements  of  knowledge  —  the  foundation 
upon  which  the  whole  superstructure  of  learning 
must  rest.  Children  have  strong  impulses  prompt 
ing  them  to  learn.  They  are  constantly  obtaining 
knowledge  without  a  teacher.  Nature  teaches 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  143 

them,  and  they  enjoy  her  teachings.  Object  Lessons 
are  intended  to  lead  the  child  methodically  in  the 
way  nature  indicates  that  he  should  be  taught.  At 
first,  they  present  to  him  things  which  are  simple, 
and  afterwards  those  which  are  less  easily  discerned 
or  less  easily  comprehended. 

A  characteristic  feature  of  the  object  method  of 
teaching  is  that  the  matter  presented  to  the  pupil 
may  be  greatly  varied.  It  is  a  common  practice  in 
our  schools  to  confine  young  children  to  one  or  two 
special  branches  of  study;  and  of  these  they  soon 
grow  weary,  and  consequently  misspend  much  of 
their  time.  A  variety  of  objects  must  be  presented 
to  children  in  order  to  enlist  their  attention,  and 
gratify  their  appetite  for  knowledge.  A  child  may 
learn  lessons  in  the  elements  of  all  the  sciences  as 
he  walks  through  field  or  meadow.  Nature  has  not 
separated  one  class  of  things  from  another,  but 
presents  all  in  rich  profusion.  The  teacher  should 
learn  from  her. 

Object  Lessons  furnish  the  best  discipline  for  the 
young  mind.  By  the  ordinary  methods  of  teaching 
a  child  his  letters,  to  spell,  and  to  read,  he  receives 
very  little  mental  discipline.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  process  of  committing  to  memory  and  repeating 
forms  of  words  which  are  not  understood  and  are 
soon  forgotten.  But  let  a  child  use  his  senses  in 
observing  and  noting  the  qualities  of  interesting 
objects,  and  it  will  soon  be  perceived  that  his  whole 
intellectual  nature  is  developing  itself.  One  might 
as  well  deprive  a  plant  of  light  or  heat,  and  expect 
it  to  grow,  as  to  endeavor  to  impart  healthy  mental 
discipline  to  a  child  without  the  presence  of  objects. 


14:4:  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE 

The  concrete   should   precede  the  abstract  in  the 
work  of  education. 


2.  THE  MATTER  OF  OBJECT  LESSONS.  —  The  field 
from  which  the  objects  themselves  may  be  chosen  is 
as  boundless  as  nature.  It  may  embrace  multitudes 
of  things  in  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal 
worlds,  and  multitudes  of  events  in  the  history  of 
mankind.  Writers  upon  Object  Lessons  have  given 
long  lists  of  such  objects,  and  it  is  quite  unnecessary 
to  repeat  them  here.  It  is  of  much  more  impor 
tance  to  determine  the  principles  which  ought  to 
guide  the  teacher,  not  merely  in  the  selection  of 
proper  objects  for  his  lessons,  but  in  the  disposition 
of  the  matter  connected  with  those  objects  with  which 
he  would  make  his  pupils  acquainted.  The  princi 
ples  about  to  be  stated  will  be  better  appreciated  if 
the  reader  will  keep  in  view  the  fact  that  Object 
Lessons  are  designed  to  teach  the  elements  of  know 
ledge,  and  that  the  expression,  elements  of  know 
ledge,  is  here  intended  to  comprehend  the  elements 
of  all  the  sciences  and  arts. 

The  matter  of  Object  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to 
give  exercise  in  their  early  growth  to  all  the  mental 
faculties.  In  the  simple  perception  of  an  object 
and  its  discrimination  from  other  objects,  a  child, 
probably,  calls  into  requisition  every  faculty  of  his 
mental  nature.  It  is  a  psychological  error  to  sup 
pose  that  any  of  his  mental  powers  are  dormant. 
Some  manifest  themselves  more  actively  or  more 
obviously  than  others,  but  all  act,  and  all  should 
be  furnished  an  opportunity  of  gaining  strength. 
Teachers  have  been  accustomed  to  consider  Object 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  145 

Lessons  simply  as  designed  to  give  culture  to  the 
perceptive  powers;  but  this  is  a  very  narrow  view 
of  the  subject.  As  the  perceptive  powers  are  more 
active  in  youth  than  any  others  of  our  mental  facul 
ties,  they  are  more  capable  of  receiving  culture,  and 
Object  Lessons  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  impart  it; 
but  it  should  not  be  imparted  to  them  to  the  neglect 
of  any  other  faculty  of  the  mind.  The  matter  of  an 
Object  Lesson,  in  addition  to  what  it  contains  that 
can  be  known  by  the  senses,  may  present  something 
to  be  retained  in  the  memory,  something  to  excite 
the  imagination,  something  to  start  a  train  of  reason 
ing,  or  something  to  call  into  play  one  of  those 
ideas  of  the  reason  which,  whether  consciously  or 
unconsciously,  condition  all  our  thinking.  Take, 
for  example,  such  a  simple  object  as  a  piece  of 
bread.  The  teacher  may  call  the  attention  of  his 
class  to  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  the  gathering  of  the 
harvest,  the  threshing  of  the  grain,  the  grinding  of 
the  flour,  the  baking  of  the  bread  —  all  of  which 
furnish  exercise  to  the  perceptive  powers  and  the 
memory.  The  imagination  is  exercised  as  well  in 
conceiving  the  ripening  wheat,  harvest-time,  the 
threshers  at  their  work,  the  mill,  the  bakery.  A 
very  little  child  can  answer  such  questions  as — Why 
is  the  ground  ploughed  and  harrowed  when  it  is 
desired  to  sow  it  with  wheat  ?  Why  is  the  ripe 
^heat  gathered  and  put  in  barns  ?  Why  is  it 
,hreshed  out  and  taken  to  mills? — and  thus  learn  to 
a&e  his  judgment  or  learn  to  think.  So,  too,  it  would 
be  proper  in  giving  such  a  lesson,  for  the  teacher  to 
say  that  God  gave  us  the  grains  of  wheat;  He  causes 
it  to  grow;  He  ripens  it  and  makes  it  fit  for  food; 

13 


146        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

and  lie  is  good.  Such  instruction  will  find  a  lodge 
ment  in  children's  minds,  because  it  is  adapted  to 
their  mental  nature,  thus  showing  that  the  noblest 
faculty  of  our  minds,  the  reason,  is  active  in  early 
youth. 

The  matter  of  Object  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to 
increase  the  pupil's  facility  in  the  use  of  language. 
Thoughts  are  helpless  without  words.  But  words 
are  best  learned  in  connection  with  things.  With 
fit  opportunity,  it  is  surprising  how  rapidly  a  child 
becomes  acquainted  with  language,  but  the  ordinary 
instruction  of  our  primary  schools  does  not  furnish 
this  opportunity.  If  the  system  of  object  teaching 
is  not  diverted  from  its  true  function,  it  will  give 
prominence  to  linguistic  culture.  According  to 
tliis  system,  the  names  of  things,  and  the  names  of 
qualities  of  things  are  constantly  pressed  upon  the 
attention  of  the  pupils.  They  are  taught,  not  only 
to  make  observations,  but  to  tell  what  they  know, 
to  repeat  what  they  have  learned ;  and  every  lesson 
acquaints  them  with  new  words.  A  constant  suc 
cession  of  interesting  objects  is  made  to  pass  before 
them,  and  they  are  taught  to  give  them  names.  An 
Object  Lesson  is,  in  part,  an  exhibition  of  objects, 
and,  in  part,  an  application  of  words,  and  the  two 
processes  should  be  inseparable. 

The  matter  of  Object  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to 
communicate  the  elementary  facts  which  constitute 
the  foundation  of  knowledge.  It  was  previously 
shown  that  all  the  sciences  took  their  rise  from  the 
common  experience  of  men.  A  child  can  be  made 
to  experience  by  design  what  men  at  first  experi 
enced  incidentally  or  by  accident,  and  this  is  one  of 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  l-i7 

the  principal  ends  proposed  by  the  object  system  of 
teaching.  A  child  can  be  made  acquainted  with  an 
immense  number  of  facts,  which  are  not  only  valua 
ble  in  themselves,  but  form  the  basis  of  further 
knowledge.  Almost  every  common  object  may  be 
made  the  subject  of  interesting  lessons.  Many  of 
the  objects  technically  belonging  to  the  various 
branches  of  Natural  History,  many  of  the  simpler 
phenomena  of  experimental  science,  certain  national 
peculiarities  of  customs  and  manners,  and  large 
numbers  of  historical  incidents,  when  properly  pre 
sented  to  children,  are  well  calculated  to  instruct 
and  delight  them.  The  experience  of  children  can 
thus  be  made  broader,  and  a  great  number  of 
valuable  facts  and  useful  words  be  stored  away  in  the 
memory. 

The  matter  of  Object  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to 
expand  the  elementary  ideas  which  furbish  the  con 
ditions  and  measure  of  our  knowing.  That  there 
are  such  ideas  has  been  already  shown,  and  no 
student  of  the  human  mind  can  doubt  it.  No 
exhaustive  enumeration  of  them  will  be  attempted 
here,  as  this  is  properly  the  work  of  the  mental 
philosopher.  It  may  be  said,  how-  >ver,  that  they  can 
be  divided  into  two  great  classes  :  Empirical  ideas, 
or  those  which  are  derived  from  experience,  and 
are  limited  by  it;  and  Rational  ideas,  or  those  of 
which  experience  is  simply  the  occasion,  and  which 
transcend  experience.  Theso  form  respectively  the 
bases  of  the  Empirical  and  the  Rational  sciences. 
Among  the  ideas  which  I  would  denominate  empi 
rical,  are  those  of  form,  number,  relation,  size,  weight, 
color,  consistency,  locality,  $c  ,  which  relate  to  material 


ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

things ;  and  those  of  duty,  right,  truth,  beauty,  good 
ness,  £c.,  which  are  moral  qualities.  Among  the 
ideas  which  I  would  call  rational  ideas,  are  those  of 
space,  time,  order  or  harmony,  identity  and  difference, 
the  infinite,  the  absolute,  the  true,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
good.  Chronologically  the  former  class  of  ideas  pre 
cede  the  latter  in  consciousness,  but  logically  they 
are  evolved  from  them.  For  example,  a  child 
realizes  the  idea  of  form  before  the  idea  of  space, 
but  the  idea  of  space  contains  all  possible  forms. 
So  the  idea  of  number  is  involved  in  the  idea  of 
time,  the  idea  of  relation  in  the  idea  of  order  or 
harmony,  the  ideas  of  particular  truth,  beauty,  or 
goodness  in  the  all-comprehending  ideas  of  the  true, 
the  beautiful,  and  the  good;  but  in  all  these  cases, 
and  in  all  others,  the  mind  passes  from  that  which 
can  be  presented  in  a  concrete  form  to  that  which 
can  only  be  conceived  abstractly.  Hence  lessons  in 
form,  number,  relation,  &c.,  are  valuable  in  them 
selves,  and  more  valuable  for  furnishing  the  occa 
sions  of  the  realization  in  consciousness  of  the  all- 
comprehending  ideas  which  involve  them. 

If  the  ideas  now  designated  do  furnish  the  con 
ditions  and  measure  of  our  knowing  (and  no  think 
ing  man  can  doubt  it),  it  should  be  one  of  the 
principal  aims  of  those  who  instruct  the  young,  to 
expand  them,  or  to  increase  the  knowledge  which 
is  based  upon  them.  Their  ideas  of  form  can  be 
expanded  by  having  children  notice,  describe,  and 
name  objects  of  various  forms;  draw  these  forms 
upon  slates,  paper,  or  blackboards ;  or  imitate  them 
in  wood,  stone,  or  clay.  Their  ideas  of  number  can 
be  expanded  by  counting  objects,  as  beans,  pebbles, 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  149 

or  grains  of  corn  ;  and  adding,  subtracting,  multi 
plying,  and  dividing  them.  E"o  object  exists  in 
nature  that  has  not  its  relations  —  its  relations  to 
other  objects,  and  the  relations  of  its  parts  to  one 
another;  and  many  of  these  are  so  simple  that 
children  of  five  years  of  age,  and  even  younger, 
can  understand  them.  Other  ideas  relating  to  ma 
terial  things  may  be  expanded  in  the  same  way. 
Moral  ideas  must  be  expanded  by  acquainting  chil 
dren  with  the  acts  which  exemplify  or  illustrate  them. 
History,  biography,  personal  experience,  must  be 
made  to  contribute  stores  of  incidents  that  can  be 
made  to  do  much  to  enlarge  the  conception  chil 
dren  have  of  right  and  wrong,  and  to  form  their 
character  to  virtue. 

The  matter  of  Object  Lessons  must  be  adapted  to 
improve  the  artistic  taste  and  talent  of  the  young. 
Children  have  productive  as  well  as  receptive 
powers.  These  productive  powers  can  be  stimu 
lated  to  activity  by  the  exhibition  of  objects  of  art. 
The  teacher  can  call  their  attention  to  the  structure 
of  houses,  bridges,  mills,  vehicles,  articles  of  furni 
ture,  and  machinery  in  great  variety.  Such  lessons 
are  lessons  on  objects,  and  so  are  those  which  relate 
to  the  mechanism  of  plants,  animals,  and  the  human 
frame-work.  They  can  also  receive  exercise  in 
practicing  the  elements  of  writing,  drawing,  paint 
ing,  and  making  things  of  wood,  and  stone,  and 
clay,  or  of  any  other  suitable  materials.  Fathers 
and  mothers  could  attend  to  this  duty  better  than 
teachers,  but  teachers  can  do  much.  Our  schools 
cannot  have  shops  connected  writh  them,  as  had 
those  of  Pestalozzi  and  De  Fellenberg,  but  still  such 


150        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

instruction  can  be  given  in  them  as  greatly  to  im 
prove  the  taste  and  talent  of  the  young.  Nor  need 
this  instruction  be  wholly  confined  to  what  are  called 
the  useful  arts,  for  it  happens  that  many  children 
can  appreciate  some  of  the  artistic  qualities  which 
distinguish  the  grander  works  of  nature,  and  the 
finer  creations  of  man. 

It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  the  matter  of 
Object  Lessons  must  be  selected  and  arranged  with 
reference  to  the  age  and  acquirements  of  pupils. 
Some  objects  may  furnish  matter  more  appropriate 
as  lessons  for  young  pupils,  and  other  objects  be 
better  suited  for  the  study  of  those  who  are  older ; 
but  it  will  often  happen  that  the  same  object  may 
be  used  in  teaching  both  classes,  provided  due  regard 
is  paid  to  their  intellectual  differences.  Objects 
generally  have  some  qualities,  resemblances  and 
differences,  relations,  and  uses  which  are  easily  dis 
cerned  and  open  to  the  observation  of  children  ;  and 
others  which  being  more  hidden  require  close  in 
spection,  or  careful  experiment  to  reveal  them. 
Sheldon's  work  on  Object  Lessons  makes  five  series 
of  lessons  each  more  difficult  than  the  preceding. 
This  is  an  excellent  arrangement. 

3.  THE  PREPARATION  FOR  IMPARTING  OBJECT  LES 
SONS. — An  important  part  of  the  preparation  for 
imparting  Object  Lessons  consists  in  procuring  suita 
ble  objects.  Knowledge  is  most  effectually  con 
veyed  to  children  through  the  medium  of  tho  eye. 
\Vhcnever  it  is  possible,  therefore,  the  teacher 
should  present  to  his  class  the  object  upon  which  he 
desires  to  give  a  lesson.  For  this  purpose  primary 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  151 

schools  should  be  furnished  with  cabinets  of  Things. 
These  should  contain  many  common  objects;  col 
lections  from  the  mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable 
kingdoms;  tools  used  by  different  tradesmen,  and, 
if  possible,  specimens  of  manufactured  articles ; 
models  of  machinery ;  curiosities  exhibiting  the 
manners,  customs,  and  degree  of  civilization  among 
tribes  and  nations  ;  coins  ;  sets  of  weights  and  mea 
sures  ;  blocks  of  various  forms;  in  short,  any  object 
about  which  a  useful  lesson  may  be  given.  Some 
times,  it  is  more  convenient  for  a  teacher  to  take  his 
•<3lass  to  see  an  object  than  to  bring  the  object  into 
the  presence  of  the  class.  Children  are  greatly  pro 
fited  by  visits  to  a  museum,  a  menagerie,  a  gallery 
of  pictures ;  by  rambles  down  a  valley,  through  a 
wood,  or  along  the  ocean  shore,  and  they  should 
frequently  be  indulged  in  them. 

When  the  object  itself  cannot  be  exhibited  to  a 
class,  the  best  substitute  is  a  picture  of  it.  A  vast 
amount  of  useful  knowledge  might  be  pleasantly 
imparted  to  the  young  by  means  of  pictorial  illustra 
tions.  At  present  such  illustrations  are  mainly 
used  incidentally ;  I  would  make  a  systematic  use 
of  them.  There  have  been  prepared  in  Europe,  and 
some  of  them  in  this  country,  Charts  of  Lines  and 
Forms,  Charts  of  Colors  and  Colored  Cards,  Charts 
of  Natural  History,  Charts  of  Common  Things, 
Moral  Prints,  Scripture  Prints,  and  Prints  illustra 
tive  of  the  History  and  Peculiarities  of  Nations.  It 
would  not  be  very  difficult  to  prepare  a  set  of  en 
gravings  which  might  be  used  to  great  advantage  in 
elementary  instruction.  If  a  teacher  can  draw,  the 
olackboard  is  a  never-failing  resource. 


152         ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

In  addition  to  objects  and  pictures  of  objects,  there 
are  certain  kinds  of  apparatus  that  seem  indispensa 
ble  in  the  work  of  primary  schools.  Children  will 
watch  with  intense  interest  the  revelations  of  the 
Microscope.  A  Stereoscope  can  be  used  with  great 
advantage,  as  can  also  a  Magic  Lantern.  A  teacher 
can  procure,  with  trifling  expense,  the  means  of 
making  many  simple  philosophical  and  chemical 
experiments,  and  his  pupils  will  be  delighted  with 
them. 

But  with  all  it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  rely 
upon  descriptions.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  de 
scriptions,  whether  given  by  the  teacher  or  presented 
in  a  book,  must  be  of  the  most  lively  character. 
The  story  must  be  well  told,  and  calculated  to 
awaken  in  the  most  vivid  manner  the  imagination 
of  children.  Most  children  are  fond  of  the  novel, 
the  marvelous,  and  the  witty,  and  this  fondness  must 
be  turned  to  good  account. 

A  teacher  of  Object  Lessons  must  prepare  himself 
both  in  respect  to  the  matter  and  the  method  of  the 
lesson.  A  text-book  may  enable  a  teacher  ^gnorant 
of  the  subject  of  the  lesson  to  ask  questions  of  his 
pupils  and  know  whether  their  answers  are  correct 
or  otherwise ;  but  all  such  botchwork  as  this  is  out 
of  the  question  in  object-teaching.  In  giving  an 
Object  Lesson,  a  teacher  must  collect  and  arrange 
his  own  materials.  His  knowledge  of  the  matter  he 
would  present  must  be  full,  precise,  and  ready,  or  a 
failure  is  inevitable.  No  proper  inquiry  from  a 
pupil  should  take  him  by  surprise  or  make  him  hesi 
tate  for  on  answer. 

No  small  degree  of  skill  is  required  to  adopt  a 


-FORMAL    INSTRUCTION".  153 

proper  method  of  imparting  a  lesson  on  an  object 
The  matter  must  be  arranged  with  reference  to  ita 
own  logical  relations,  and  also  with  reference  to  ita 
adaptation  to  the  mental   capacities  of  the    class. 
This  work  requires  skilful  handling,  and  cannot  be 
done  without  careful  consideration.     The  difficulty 
is  increased  when  a  general  subject  is  intended  to 
be  developed  by  a  series  of  lessons,  which  is  always 
best  except  with  the  youngest  pupils.     It  is  a  good 
plan  for  a  teacher  first  to  fill   his  mind  with  the 
details  of  the  subject,  and  then  arrange  them  under 
prominent  headings,  calculated  to  present  the  parts 
of  the  lesson  in  their  proper  relations,  and  to  make 
an  impression  upon  the  minds  of  his  pupils.     He 
may  write  out  a  full  sketch  of  the  lesson  for  his  own 
convenience,    but   a  well-planned   outline    of  it  is 
indispensable.      Such    an   outline    should    not  be 
referred  to  at  the  recitation,  but  it  should  be  strictly 
followed.     Without  such  adherence  to  a  method, 
the  desultory  modes  of  thinking  which  characterize 
children  will  make  the  lesson  fruitless  of  good  in 
effecting  that  mental   discipline  which  is  its  main 
object.     Still  the    outline   should    only  guide,   not 
cramp,  the  recitation.    An  Object  Lesson  should  not 
consist  merely  of  a  number  of  questions  asked  and 
a  number  of  answers   given ;    the  teacher   should 
propose  to  himself  in  every  lesson  certain  points  to 
be  presented,  certain  ends  to  be  attained,  and  then 
strive  to  accomplish  what  he  purposes.     It  is  more 
a  training  than  a  teaching  exercise ;  and  each  ques 
tion  should  be  put  Avith  a  well-defined  object,  and 
other  questions  should  follow  until  that  object  be 
attained. 


104  ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

Something  will  be  gained  in  all  cases  if  tl  o 
teacher  would  announce  the  object  about  which  a 
lesson  is  tj  be  given  some  time  before  the  recita 
tion  takes  place.  When  this  is  done,  the  pupils 
can  make  some  preparation  for  the  lesson.  They 
can  observe,  make  inquiries,  and,  instructed  to  that 
extent,  can  increase  their  information  by  reading. 
It  does  not  follow  that  because  the  kind  of  instruc 
tion  now  contemplated  is  called  Object  Lessons 
that  pupils  are  precluded  from  increasing  their 
knowledge  from  books,  and  it  is  well  to  have  suit 
able  books,  books  of  reference,  books  containing 
pictures  of  objects  and  descriptions  of  them,  pro 
vided  in  every  primary  school.  A  lesson  about  an 
object  of  which  the  pupils  know  nothing  will 
always  be  dull,  and  is  likely  to  be  profitless. 
Teachers  sometimes  furnish  an  outline  of  the  pro 
posed  lesson  to  their  pupils  before  the  recitation, 
and  this  practice,  it  is  thought,  guides  them  in 
their  search  for  information,  and  enables  them  to 
make  a  more  systematic  arrangement  of  it. 

4.  THE  METHOD  OF  CONDUCTING  OBJECT  LESSONS. 
—  A  school-room  presents  no  more  delicate  or 
difficult  work  than  the  recitation.  Nothing  else 
tests  more  severely  the  teacher's  skill.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  lessons  on  objects.  In  most 
other  recitations,  the  text-book  furnishes  some  help, 
but  in  giving  an  Object  Lesson  a  teacher  is  thrown 
mainly  upon  his  own  resources. 

The  teacher  is  supposed  to  have  in  his  mind  the 
point  which  he  wishes  brought  out  in  the  lesson. 
This  may  be  the  communication  of  a  knowledge  of 


FOEMAL    INSTRUCTION.  i55 

important  facts,  the  pointing  out  of  a  quality,  the 
development  of  a  principle,  the  expansion  of  an 
idea,  the  exhibition  of  a  relation ;  but  whatever  it 
is,  it  must  be  allowed  to  give  direction  to  the  recita- 
tion.  Goins:  forward  with  a  well-defined  aim,  the 

o  ' 

recitation  has  three  stages  which  should  be  severally 
noticed: 

First,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  obtain  all  the 
information  concerning  the  matter  of  the  lesson 
which  may  be  in  the  possession  of  the  class.  He 
may  ask  questions  or  make  suggestions,  but  before 
giving  any  information  himself  he  must  be  sure  that 
no  member  of  the  class  could  give  it.  Pupils  will 
not  exert  themselves  to  prepare  a  lesson  unless  they 
think  they  will  have  permission  to  show  what  they 
have  learned.  A  lesson  about  an  object  is  not  in 
tended  to  be  a  lecture  upon  it.  Besides,  if  the 
teacher  does  the  observing  and  thinking  for  his 
class,  the  disciplinary  purposes  of  the  Object  Lesson 
are  in  great  measure  defeated. 

Second,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  give  his  pupils 
the  opportunity  of  finding  out  all  they  can.  Skill 
in  teaching  does  not  so  much  consist  in  what  a 
teacher  imparts  to  a  class  as  in  what  he  leads  them 
to  find  out  for  themselves.  In  object-teaching 
especially  pupils  should  be  constantly  prompted  to 
observe  new  facts,  explain  new  phenomena,  and 
perform  new  mental  operations.  Each  lesson  is  a 
voyage  of  discovery  in  which  the  teacher  acts  as 
captain  and  pilot,  but  in  which  the  pupils  make, 
record,  and  elaborate  the  observations.  When 
pupils  hesitate  for  an  answer,  they  should  not  be 
told  it  directly  unless  hints  will  not  suggest  it  to 


156        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

them,  or  they  cannot  be  brought  to  infer  it  from 
what  they  have  previously  learned.  To  lead  a  pupil 
from  what  he  knows  to  lind  out  what  he  does  not 
know  requires  the  highest  order  of  teaching  talent, 
and  to  attain  this  ability  should  be  the  constant  aim 
of  the  teacher.  Without  it,  no  successful  object- 
teaching  is  possible. 

Third,  when  pupils  have  exhausted  all  their 
knowledge  acquired  before  the  recitation  and  all 
their  ingenuity  in  adding  to  it  during  the  recitation, 
the  teacher  may  impart  any  further  information  he 
deems  proper. 

The  three  stages  of  a  recitation  now  named  are 
sufficiently  well  marked,  but  of  course  it  is  not 
meant  that  any  one  of  these  stages  can  be  completed 
in  all  the  particulars  of  a  lesson,- until  the  others  are 
entered  upon.  The  teacher  must  not  wait  to  give 
hints  or  impart  knowledge  in  regard  to  one  point, 
because  the  pupils  have  not  exhausted  their  infor 
mation  in  regard  to  others. 

5.  THE  DANGERS  TO  WHICH  THE  OBJECT  LESSON 
SYSTEM  is  EXPOSED. — Doubtless  the  greatest  danger 
to  which  the  Object  Lesson  system  is  exposed  arises 
from  the  want  of  a  proper  appreciation  of  it  on  the 
part  of  teachers.  Many  teachers  even  who  profess 
to  use  the  system,  entertain  extremely  narrow  views 
respecting  it.  They  do  not  apprehend  the  great 
educational  truth  that  all  the  sciences  rest  upon  certain 
elements  as  bases,  and  that  these  elements  are  only  known 
by  means  of  our  experience  with  objects.  The  system 
of  object-teaching  well  understood  is  broad  enough 
to  embrace  all  the  elements  which  constitute  the 


FOEMAL    INSTRUCTION.  157 

foundation  of  knowledge,  and  that  system  is  much 
disgraced  by  those  who  allow  it  to  degenerate  into 
loose  lessons  on  pieces  of  paper,  bits  of  glass,  lumps 
of  sugar,  or  stalks  of  grain.  Besides,  those  who 
would  fully  comprehend  the  system  of  object-teach 
ing  must  study  its  adaptation  as  a  means  of  develop 
ing  the  mental  faculties  of  children  as  well  as  of  its 
capability,  when  well  administered,  of  imparting 
instruction  in  the  elements  of  knowledge.  "With 
an  inadequate  conception  of  the  function  of  Object 
Lessons  it  is  no  wonder  that  many  teachers  fail  in 
securing  any  advantage  from  them.  ~No  one  who 
has  been  accustomed  to  a  slavish  dependence  upon 
text-books  can  succeed.  But  success  is  possible  to 
all  who  possess  teaching  talent  and  strive  to  make 
themselves  acquainted  with  the  nature  and  design 
of  Object  Lessons. 

In  addition  to  the  danger  to  the  Object  Lesson 
system  which  arises  from  ignorant  teachers,  several 
special  dangers  to  which  it  is  exposed  may  be  briefly 
referred  to.  They  all  arise  from  a  misconception  as 
to  the  true  nature  of  Object  Lessons,  or  are  faults  in 
the  methods  of  imparting  such  lessons. 

The  Object  Lesson  system  is  apt  to  become  an 
exercise  in  learning  words  without  ideas.  Children 
are  capable  of  making  great  progress  in  the  use  of 
language,  and  they  should  be  instructed  with  refer 
ence  to  this  end.  In  giving  a  lesson  upon  an  object, 
it  does  not  seem  objectionable  to  allow  children  to 
name  every  quality  they  can  readily  discern,  nor  do 
I  see  any  serious  objection  to  the  use  of  scientific 
names;  but  it  is  objectionable  and  quite  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  the  Object  Lesson  system,  for  children 

14 


158        ELEMENTS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

to  cummit  to  memory  the  names  of  the  qualities  of 
things  which  they  cannot  be  made  to  perceive  with 
out  great  difficulty,  if  at  all.  The  lists  of  the  names 
of  the  qualities  of  certain  objects,  as  they  appear  in 
some  of  oar  works  011  Object  Lessons,  ought  to  be 
much  shortened. 

The  Object  Lesson  system  is  apt  to  tempt  the 
teacher  to  introduce  matter  into  the  lesson  which 
the  pupils  cannot  comprehend.  This  is  a  temptation 
to  which  all  teaching  is  liable,  but  it  seems  to  be 
stronger  when  the  teacher  makes  his  own  selection 
of  matter  for  a  lesson  than  when  that  matter  is 
arranged  in  a  text-book.  At  any  rate,  the  fact  is  cer 
tain  that  many  who  impart  instruction  in  Object 
Lessons  err  in  this  particular.  The  desire  is  so 
great  to  communicate  to  others  what  seems  most 
important  or  is  most  interesting  to  ourselves,  that  if 
such  teachers  could  sit  in  judgment  upon  their  own 
work  they  would  find  it  to  consist,  not  wholly  in  an 
effort  to  impart  the  simple  elements  of  knowledge 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  children,  but  in  an  effort 
to  expound  principles  of  science  quite  beyond  their 
comprehension. 

The  Object  Lesson  system  is  apt  to  continue 
instruction  in  the  concrete  after  pupils  can  appreciate 
the  abstract.  All  instruction  should  commence  with 
the  concrete.  The  elements  of  all  kinds  of  know 
ledge  must  be  taught  in  connection  with  objects, 
but  an  acquaintance  with  material  things  is  far  from 
being  the  highest  end  of  study;  and  object-teaching 
pushed  too  far  tends  to  degrade  education.  Back 
of  all  there  are  principles,  ideas,  controlling  things, 
which  are  the  soul's  most  nourishing  pabulum 


FORMAL    INSTRUCTION.  159 

Soon  after  a  child  has  learned  to  count  with  objects, 
he  may  begin  to  count  without  them  ;  soon  after  he 
has  become  acqainted^vith  real  forms,  he  may  begin 
to  deal  with  ideal  ones.  Through  facts  and  phe 
nomena  he  should  be  led  to  apprehend  the  laws  that 
control  them  and  the  Lawgiver.  The  contempla 
tion  of  truths  should  bring  into  clear  consciousness 
the  idea  of  truth,  and  of  virtues,  virtue. 

The  tendency  of  the  times  is  towards  materialism 
in  education.  It  manifests  itself  in  the  oft-repeated 
objections  which  are  made  to  the  study  of  the 
Ancient  languages,  to  the  study  of  higher  Mathe 
matics,  and  especially  to  the  study  of  Metaphysics. 
In  this  spirit  some  have  favored  Object  Lessons,  be 
cause  it  was  thought  the  system  tended  to  cultivate 
in  the  young  a  taste  for  concrete  rather  than  abstract 
science,  to  teach  them  to  handle  substantial  realities 
rather  than  airy  nothings.  Blind  guides  these;  all 
earthly  phenomena  are  fleeting,  while  the  powers 
that  cause  and  govern  them  are  eternal.  Herbert 
Spencer,  in  his  inquiry  as  to  "What  knowledge  is 
of  most  worth  ?"  arranges  education  with  reference 
to  its  relative  decree  of  worth  into  the  following 

o  o 

classes :  1st.  That  education  which  prepares  for 
direct  self-preservation ;  2d.  That  which  prepares 
for  indirect  self-preservation ;  3d.  That  which  pre 
pares  for  parenthood  ;  4th.  That  which  prepares  for 
citizenship ;  5th.  That  which  prepares  for  the  mis 
cellaneous  refinements  of  life.  All  this  looks  like 
an  implied  denial  of  man's  immortality  —  as  if  the 
interest  of  self  was  man's  only  interest.  But  is  that 
education  of  highest  worth  which  prepares  for 
direct  self-preservation  ?  I  am  not  unmindful  of  the 
value  of  life,  but  surely  there  are  manv  things  for 


ELEMENTS    OF    KNOWLEDGE. 

which  it  is  well  to  sacrifice  it.  The  preservation  of 
life  is  not  to  be  compared  in  importance  to  the  pre 
servation  of  the  soul's  integrity.  Let  education  be 
guarded  from  the  influence  of  a  low  materialism. 
Concrete  science  is  worth  much,  but  abstract  science 
is  worth  more.  The  former  is  but  a  means  of  reaching 
the  latter.  Let  us  devoutly  study  the  works  of  the 
creation,  but  let  us  not  forget  that  God  made  them. 

The  Object  Lesson  system  is  apt  to  cramp  the  im 
agination,  and  weaken  the  trustfulness,  of  children. 
Every  one  has  noticed  the  lively  imagination  of 
children.  They  gild  the  narrow  horizon  of  theii 
vision  with  dreams.  Elysian  fields  cover  all  their 
future.  Unless  this  characteristic  indicates  an  ab 
normal  condition  of  the  youthful  mind  (and  no  one 
can  believe  that  it  does),  it  is  wrong  to  limit  their 
education  to  the  acquirement  of  dry,  hard  facts. 
Facts  must  be  learned,  true  enough,  but  we  must 
allow  some  room  for  the  play  of  the  imagination. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  "  That  facts  alone 
are  wanted  in  life."  The  sunlight  plays  about  the 
rugged  mountain  heights,  and  silver  lakes  nestle 
down  below  frowning  crags  and  cliffs.  I  would  but 
chasten  his  imagination,  I  would  not  destroy  a  single 
air-castle  of  a  child. 

God  made  children  trustful.  No  scheme  of  edu 
cation  could  be  worse  than  one  which  proposes 
never  to  describe  anything  to  a  child  which  he 
cannot  see,  never  to  tell  a  child  anything  which  he 
cannot  understand,  for  this  would  be  to  weaken  the 
power  which  was  given  him  to  be  developed  intr. 
that  faith  which  lays  hold  of  things  unseen — im 
mortality,  God.  Doubts  will  come  soon  enough, 
and  strong  enough ;  childhood  is  the  time  for  trust. 


CHAPTER    II. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

"  MAN,  in  fact,"  says  Sir  William  Hamilton,  "only 
obtains  the  use  of  his  faculties  in  obtaining  the  use 
of  speech ;  for  language  is  the  indispensable  means 
of  the  development  of  his  natural  powers,  whether 
intellectual  or  moral."  The  truth  of  this  statement 
is  unquestionable,  and  it  shows  at  once  the  de 
servedly  high  place  Language  holds  in  a  course  of 
study.  For  its  beauty  as  a  science,  for  its  useful 
ness  as  an  art,  for  its  disciplinary  advantages  as  a 
study,  Language  can  scarcely  be  outranked  in  excel 
lence  by  any  other  subject  open  to  the  contemplation 
of  finite  minds. 

The  following  divisions  are  deemed  proper : 

I.  Instruction  in  our  Mother-Tongue. 
II.  Instruction  in  the  Dead  Languages. 
III.  Instruction  in  Living  Foreign  Languages 

b 

I.  Instruction  in  our  Mother-Tongue. 

Nobody  will  deny  that  to  be  able  to  read  and  write 
our  Mother-Tongue  with  accuracy  and  facility  is  a 
valuable  acquirement,  but  even  some  teachers  hold 
that  its  further  study  is  of  little  use.  In  these  cir 
cumstances  it  may  be  worth  while  to  make  a  fe\v 

14*  (161) 


162  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

statements  intended  to  favor  the  study  of  the  English 
Language  as  a  science. 

A  knowledge  of  the  English  Language,  as  a 
science,  is  necessary  to  a  nice  appreciation  of  it. 
One  who  is  accustomed  to  hear  well-spoken  dis 
courses,  or  to  read  well-written  books,  may  be  able 
in  good  degree  to  understand  the  meaning  and  per 
ceive  the  beauty  of  what  he  hears  or  reads ;  but  to 
enable  an  individual  to  appreciate  those  more  deli 
cate  shades  of  thought,  or  those  finer  touches  of 
beauty,  which  may  be  expressed  in  words,  careful 
study  is  necessary.  If  any  doubt  it,  let  them  test 
the  matter.  Take  a  poem  of  Milton's,  or  an  oration 
of  "Webster's,  and  enter  upon  a  critical  examination 
of  it  with  a  well-read  man  who  has  never  studied 
Grammar  or  Rhetoric,  and  you  will  most  likely  find 
that  many  things  relating  to  its  arrangement,  its 
choice  of  words,  its  introduction  of  figures,  its  con 
struction  of  sentences,  its  order  of  paragraphs,  have 
almost  altogether  escaped  his  attention;  and  that 
even  many  things  Avhich  he  has  noticed  he  cannot 
express  in  appropriate  words.  No  art,  indeed,  can 
be  fully  appreciated  without  a  knowledge  of  the 
science  or  sciences  upon  which  it  is  based,  and  lan 
guage  is  no  exception. 

A  knowledge  of  the  English  Language,  as  a 
science,  is  necessary  to  its  skilful  use.  With  suita 
ble  models  for  imitation,  a  child  may  learn  to  speak 
and  write  correctly.  A  favored  son  of  genius  may 
be  so  gifted  with  speech  that  without  the  prepara 
tion  of  study  he  can  lead  men  captive  by  the  charms 
of  his  poetry  or  the  power  of  his  eloquence.  But 
these  facts  do  not  invalidate  the  proposition  which 


OUR    MOTHER-TONGUE.  163 

heads  this  paragraph.  Suitable  models  for  imitation 
may,  indeed,  enable  a  child  to  speak  and  write  his 
Mother  Tongue  with  as  much  accuracy  as  is  gen 
erally  required  by  the  common  usages  of  society, 
but  the  degree  of  skill  thus  acquired  would  be  en 
tirely  inadequate  to  the  higher  purposes  of  Litera 
ture.  If  the  gift  of  genius  in  the  use  of  language, 
on  the  part  of  the  one  who  has  it,  be  taken  as  a  fact 
indicating  that  no  necessity  exists  for  study  on  the 
part  of  the  thousands  who  have  it  not,  there  is  no 
reason  why  the  same  principle  might  not  be  applied 
to  all  human  efforts,  for  in  each  of  these,  at  some 
time,  genius  has  enjoyed  triumphs.  It  is  not  possi 
ble  for  ordinary  men  to  use  language  with  skill  who 
have  not  closely  studied  the  signification  of  words, 
the  structure  of  sentences,  the  characteristics  of 
style,  and  the  composition  of  discourse.  The  Greeks 
made  their  language  a  prominent  object  of  study, 
and  the  classic  elegance  of  their  writings  is  the 
delight  of  all  readers.  The  Parisians,  by  the  same 
means,  are  fast  making  the  French  the  language  of 
refined  society  throughout  Europe.  Demosthenes 
prepared  his  unequalled  orations  with  immense 
labor,  and  the  same  is  true,  with  fewer  exceptions 
than  is  generally  supposed,  of  all  great  speakers 
and  writers. 

A  knowledge  of  the  science  of  the  English  Lan 
guage  is  valuable  for  its  own  sake.  We  study  not 
merely  to  use,  but  to  know.  Knowledge  is  of  much 
worth  in  itself.  Language  is  subject  to  laws  which 
control  its  growth,  its  changes,  its  constructions. 
If  it  is  worth  while  to  study  the  laws  which  relate 
to  the  mineral  masses  of  the  earth,  to  plants,  to 


164  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

animals,  to  stars,  it  cannot  be  less  worth  while  to 
study  the  laws  which  relate  to  human  speech.  The 
science  of  the  English  Language  contains  as  much 
worth  knowing  as  any  other  science,  the  study  of  it 
is  as  valuable  for  discipline,  and  as  well  calculated 
to  lift  the  mind  up  to  the  contemplation  of  what  is 
most  noble  in  human  life  and  human  thought.  In 
deed,  it  would  seem  that  our  Mother-Tongue  ought 
to  have  more  interest  for  us  than  almost  any  other 
thing.  It  is  by  means  of  our  powers  of  speech  that 
we  hold  converse  with  our  friends,  in  words  we 
embalm  our  thoughts,  in  words  our  heart's  highest 
aspirations  are  expressed.  Except  the  soul  itself, 
earth  can  present  nothing  more  wonderful  or  more 
clearly  evincing  Divine  wisdom  and  goodness  than 
Language. 

A  knowledge  of  the  science  of  the  English  Lan 
guage  is  valuable  to  us  on  account  of  the  relations 
of  the  science  of  language  to  other  sciences.  Lan 
guage  must  be  used  to  record  all  the  observations 
and  discoveries  which  are  made  in  any  department 
of  science,  and  the  scientific  man  feels  the  constant 
want  of  words  adapted  to  express  his  meaning.  He 
sees  things  which  he  cannot  describe ;  he  feels 
thoughts  stir  within  him  which  he  cannot  express. 
Suffering  from  such  a  disability,  he  says  what  he 
does  not  mean,  and  is  misunderstood,  perhaps 
maligned.  The  history  of  science  records  many 
"wars  of  words."  Bacon,  Locke,  and  many  other 
writers  lament  the  errors  in  science  which  arise 
from  a  misuse  of  language.  While  language  has 
thus  an  intimate  general  relation  to  all  the  sciences, 
its  relations  are  particularly  close  to  History  and  the 


THE   ALPHABET.  165 

Philosophy  of  the  Mind.  The  language  of  a  people 
reveals  their  inmost  life.  Not  only  what  they  did, 
but  what  they  were,  becomes  fossilized  in  words,  and 
men  can  read  the  record  after  the  lapse  of  centuries. 
So  the  mind  reflects  itself  in  speech  as  in  a  mirror. 
The  laws  of  thought  are  found  expressed  in  the  laws 
of  speech,  and  hence  the  sciences  of  Logic  and 
Grammar  have  much  in  common. 

The  preceding  statements,  showing  the  value  of  a 
knowedge  of  our  Mother-Tongue,  prepare  the  way 
for  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  methods  of  instruc 
tion  adapted  to  the  various  branches  which  relate 
to  it.  Generally  stated  they  are  as  follows: 

I.  LEARNING  TO  READ  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE. 
II.  LEARNING    TO     UNDERSTAND    OUR    MOTHER- 
TONGUE. 

III.  LEARNING    TO    COMPOSE    IN    OUR    MOTHER 
TONGUE. 

I.  LEARNING  TO  READ  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE. 

Under  the  head  of  Learning  to  Read  our  Mother- 
Tongue,  we  will  discuss  methods  of  imparting 
instruction  in  the  Alphabet,  Pronunciation,  Spelling, 
and  Reading. 

THE  ALPHABET. 

Already  something  has  been  said  concerning 
methods  of  teaching  children  to  speak  correctly, 
hereafter  something  further  will  be  presented  on  the 
subject;  here  some  degree  of  familiarity  with  spoken 
words  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  is  taken  for  granted. 


INSTKUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

Reasons  lu^ve  been  given  also  why  the  instruction 
of  a  child  should  commence  with  things  rather  than 
with  words ;  but,  since  there  will  come  a  time  when 
he  must  be  made  acquainted  with  written  language, 
we  will  now  consider  methods  of  teaching  the 
Alphabet. 

There  are  twenty-six  letters  in  the  Alphabet  of 
the  English  Language.  In  order  that  children  be 
made  acquainted  with  these  characters,  they  must 
learn:  first,  to  know  their  forms;  second,  to  asso 
ciate  their  names  with  their  forms.  That  will  be 
the  best  method  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  which 
impresses  the  forms  of  letters  most  deeply  upon  the 
memories  of  learners,  and  succeeds  in  making  the 
most  lasting  associations  between  these  forms  and 
their  names. 

In  teaching  the  forms  of  letters,  the  sense  of  sight 
is  addressed  ;  and  in  teaching  their  names,  the  sense 
of  hearing.  To  the  blind,  a  knowledge  of  the  forms 
of  the  letters  is  communicated  through  the  sense  of 
feeling.  The  deaf  and  dumb  cannot  learn  the  names 
of  the  letters — they  can  learn  to  write  but  not  to 
read. 

It  is  possible  that  our  English  letters  are  the 
changed  forms  of  symbols  used  by  the  ancient 
Phoenicians  or  Egyptians,  and  they  may  once  have 
represented  real  objects;  but  now  they  are  wholly 
arbitrary.  Many  other  forms  might  be  adopted  that 
would  answer  the  purpose  just  as  well.  The  names 
of  the  letters,  too,  are  arbitrary;  at  least  so  far  as  a 
child  can  understand.  The  names  of  some  of  them 
do  possess  an  analogy  to  the  sounds  they  are  in 
tended  to  represent ;  but  there  are  so  many  depar- 


THE   ALPHABET.  167 

tures  from  this  principle  that  little  practical  advan 
tage  can  be  derived  from  it  in  teaching.  A  child 
cannot  see  why  de  is  a  more  appropriate  name  for 
the  letter  d,  than  ge  would  he ;  why  z  should  he 
called  ze,  instead  of  zed,  izzurd,  or  any  other  name ; 
nor  why  the  twenty-six  names  in  use  have  been 
chosen  in  preference  to  as  many  others. 

To  learn  our  Alphabet,  then,  a  child  must  become 
acquainted  with  twenty-six  arbitrary  forms,  and 
associate  with  them  twenty-six  arbitrary  names. 

Infants  first  notice  objects,  as  cat,  dog,  clock ; 
next,  they  learn  to  associate  certain  verbal  utter 
ances  with  these  objects,  and  always  look  for  the 
thing  when  its  name  is  mentioned ;  and,  finally, 
they  attain  the  power  of  imitating  these  utterances, 
or  they  learn  to  talk.  Objects  familiar  to  a  child 
may  be  represented  by  pictures,  and  he  may  be 
exercised  in  naming  the  objects  thus  represented. 
Such  exercises  upon  the  pictures  of  familiar  objects 
may  be  followed  by  others  upon  the  pictures  of  un 
familiar  objects,  and  the  child  may  be  taught  to  call 
the  pictures  of  a  lion,  a  tiger,  a  camel,  an  ostrich, 
&c.,  by  their  right  names.  Other  lessons  might 
acquaint  the  child  with  the  forms  and  names  of 
some  of  the  simpler  diagrams  used  in  Mathematics, 
-such  as  squares,  triangles,  circles,  and  rectangles. 
These  exercises  seem  to  present  a  series  of  easily 
followed  progressive  steps  from  the  first  attempts  at 
talking  to  the  task  of  learning  the  Alphabet.  They 
follow  essentially  the  steps  which  preceded  the  in 
vention  of  the  Alphabet.  The  principle  is  the  same 
in  all,  that  of  learning  forms  and  their  names.  The 


168  INSTRUCTION    IN   LANGUAGE. 

Alpnabet  is  more  difficult  to  learn,  because  its  forms 
and  names  are  arbitrary. 

The  Alphabet  may  be  taught  in  two  ways :  first, 
by    commencing    with    letters ;    second,    by   com 
mencing  with  words.     The  first  may  be  called  the 
A  B  C  Method,  and  the  second  the  Word  Method. 

1.  THE  ABC  METHOD.  — The  ABC  Method 
commences  with  letters.  As  the  manner  of  con 
ducting  a  recitation  in  the  Alphabet,  according  to 
this  method,  depends  somewhat  upon  the  kind  of 
apparatus  used,  a  convenient  classification  may  be 
based  upon  it. 

1st.  The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  from  a 
Book. — As  the  Alphabet  was  taught  some  years 
ago,  and  as  it  is  taught  now  to  a  more  limited 
extent,  each  pupil  was  provided  with  a  book,  called 
a  Primer,  or  an  A  B  C  Book>  from  which  he  recited 
his  lesson.  Teachers  generally  called  their  pupils 
up  singly,  and,  with  pen,  pencil,  or  pen-knife, 
pointed  to  the  letters,  from  a  to  3,  or  from  z  to  a, 
and  asked  their  names,  or  told  what  they  should  be 
called.  The  whole  twenty-six  letters  were  named 
in  quick  succession,  little  effort  was  made  to  im 
press  their  forms  or  names  upon  the  pupils'  memo 
ries,  no  questions  were  asked  or  instruction  given 
apart  from  the  lesson  which  might  be  calculated  to 
add  interest  to  it,  and  the  work  of  recitation  was  a 
short  process,  but  a  very  dull  and  dry  one. 

More  skilful  teachers  may  use  boqks  in  teaching 
the  Alphabet  to  better  advantage.  Instead  of  pur 
suing  a  fixed  order  in  their  teaching,  and  invariably 


THE    ALPHABET.  169 

passing  from  the  first  letter  of  the  Alphabet  to  the 
last,  or  from  the  last  to  the  first,  they  may  select  at 
the  commencement  a  few  of  those  letters  which 
possess  the  most  easily  remembered  forms,  describe 
them,  ask  questions  about  them,  and  engage  their 
pupils  in  searching  for  them  among  other  letters. 
Used  in  this  manner,  the  Alphabet  may  be  taught 
from  a  book  quite  readily;  but  as  only  one  at  a  time 
can  be  heard  conveniently,  this  manner  of  conducting 
a  recitation  loses  the  advantages  of  classification ; 
and,  besides,  looking  at  and  talking  about  forms  are 
not  the  best  conditions  for  remembering  them. 


2d.  The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  with  Cards. 
— Cards  used  for  giving  instruction  in  the  Alphabet 
should  be  large,  and  the  letters  should  be  printed 
upon  them  in  large  type.  The  first  Card  might 
have  a  few  of  the  letters  most  easily  learned,  as  0, 
JT,  and  $,  placed  prominently  in  the  centre,  and  the 
same  arranged  promiscuously  with  a  few  other 
letters  about  the  margin.  The  second  Card  might 
have  a  few  additional  letters  placed  in  the  centre, 
and  these,  with  those  first  learned,  and  a  few  others, 
might  be  made  to  occupy  the  margin,  as  in  the  first 
Card.  This  arrangement  of  the  letters  should  be 
continued  upon  other  Cards  until  the  whole  Alpha 
bet  was  presented. 

Imagine  such  a  set  of  Cards,  a  suitable  frame 
upon  which  to  place  them,  the  teacher  with  pointer 
in  hand,  and  a  class  of  pupils,  and  you  will  be 
ready  to  appreciate  the  lesson  which  is  about  to  be 
described. 

The  teacher  first  calls  the  attention  of  his  class 

15 


170  INSTKUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

to  the  large  letters  in  the  centre  of  the  Card.  He 
speaks  of  their  forms,  peculiarities,  and  resem 
blances  ;  gives  their  names,  repeats  them,  and  asks 
appropriate  questions  about  them.  Then,  the  inter 
esting  search  for  the  letters,  as  they  are  arranged 
about  the  margin  of  the  Card,  commences.  Mary 
finds  six  e's,  but  John  detects  another  one.  Jainea 
counts  four  b's,  but  the  rest  insist  that  one  of  them 
is  a  d.  Sarah  finds  out  three  r's,  and  no  one  can 
find  another.  Emma  names  a  letter,  and  the  rest 
are  requested  to  look  for  it.  It  is  p.  The  eager 
search  begins,  and  it  is  eager,  for  Emma  well  knows 
that^?  is  a  hard  letter  to  remember,  and  there  is  but 
one  on  the  Card.  James  calls  out,  "I  have  it." 
Other  letters  are  named  and  found ;  and  when  the 
recitation  has  ended,  the  pupils  take  their  seats 
reluctantly,  and  wait  impatiently  till  the  time  again 
arrives  when  they  can  have  another  game  of  "  hide 
and  seek"  with  letters.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that, 
with  Cards  skilfully  used,  a  knowledge  of  the 
Alphabet  can  be  quickly  and  pleasantly  imparted. 

3d.  The  Manner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  on  the  Slate 
or  Blackboard.  —  The  best  way  of  impressing  forms 
upon  the  memory  is  to  make  them.  In  drawing  an 
object,  one  is  compelled  to  look  at  it  closely,  and 
follow  out  all  its  details,  and  this  is  well  calculated 
to  deepen  the  impression  it  leaves  upon  the  mind. 
For  this  reason,  the  slate  and  blackboard,  upon 
which  letters  may  be  copied,  are  considered  useful 
articles  of  apparatus  in  teaching  the  Alphabet. 

If  the  teacher  can  draw  skilfully,  he  may  place 
letters  for  imitation  upon  the  slate  or  blackboard ; 


THE   ALPHABET.  171 

but  if  not,  he  must  have  suitable  printed  letters  for 
models. 

In  conducting  a  recitation,  the  teacher  may  first 
require  his  pupils  to  imitate  the  forms  of  several 
letters  which  he  has  placed  upon  the  blackboard. 
Next,  he  may  engage  them  in  criticising  their  own 
work,  and  comparing  it  with  the  models.  All  the 
peculiarities  in  the  forms  of  the  letters  must  be 
commented  upon.  If  deemed  expedient,  the  letters 
may  be  redrawn.  The  teacher  may  draw  the  letters 
awkwardly  on  purpose,  in  order  to  excite  interest, 
and  induce  criticism.  Finally,  the  names  of  letters, 
thus  drawn,  may  be  given,  pointed  out  by  the  chil 
dren,  and  repeated  in  various  ways. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  using  the  slate  and 
blackboard,  in  teach;.ig  the  Alphabet,  is  that  the 
teacher  can  furnish  pleasant  employment  for  the 
class  when  not  engaged  in  reciting.  Lessons  which 
have  been  recited  may  be  repeated  upon  the 
pupils'  slates  at  their  seats,  or  upon  blackboards 
suitably  located  for  the  purpose;  or  new  lessons 
can  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner.  Children  are 
very  fond  of  work  of  this  kind,  and  it  will  be  found 
^  greatly  to  facilitate  their  progress. 

There  are  certain  letters  in  the  English  Alphabet 
\vhich,  from  the  similarity  of  their  forms,  are  more 
difficult  to  distinguish  than  others,  such  as  A  and  V, 
M  and  1ST,  and  E  arid  F,  among  capital  letters;  and 
b  and  d,  p  and  q,  c  and  e,  and  u  and  n,  among  small 
letters.  The  distinctions  between  such  letters  can 
be  more  prominently  brought  before  the  learner's 
mind  when  exhibited  upon  the  blackboard  than  in 
any  other  way,  and  if  he  be  required  to  draw  them 


172  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

repeatedly  himself  he  cannot  easily  forget  them. 
For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  we  will  take  the 
letters,  6,  c?,  p,  and  #,  and  describe  a  lesson  upon 
them.  Having  drawn  the  letters  conspicuously 
upon  the  black-board,  the  teacher  may  call  the 
attention  of  the  class  to  their  forms,  leading  them 
to  see  that  these  are  composed  mainly  of  two  parts. 
He  may  then  draw  these  parts  separately,  and  give 
them  names.  I  call  them  stem  and  curve.  After 
wards,  it  will  be  well  to  draw  a  stem,  and  by  placing 
the  curve,  first  at  the  top,  and  then  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stem,  and  upon  both  sides,  it  will  be  shown  that 
all  the  letters  can  be  made.  Let  the  teacher  now 
satisfy  himself  that  his  pupils  know  their  right  hand 
from  the  left,  and  he  may  send  them  to  the  black 
board,  with  the  direction  to  draw  a  stem,  and  place 
the  curve  at  the  bottom,  at  the  top,  on  the  left  side, 
on  the  right  side,  until  they  are  quite  familiar  with 
all  the  forms,  and  can  draw  them  readily.  The 
names  of  the  letters  may  now  be  given,  and  the 
teacher  will  ask  such  questions  as  these :  If  I  place 
the  curve  at  the  top  of  the  stem  on  the  right-hand 
side,  what  letter  do  I  make  ?  If  I  place  it  on  the 
left-hand  side  at  the  bottom,  what  letter  do  I  make? 
On  the  left-hand  side  at  the  top  ?  On  the  right-hand 
side  at  the  bottom  ?  Which  letter  is  pf  Which  is 
d?  Which  is  b?  Which  is  q?  How  is  d  made? 
How  is  q  made?  Where  do  you  put  the  curve  in 
making  b?  Where  do  you  put  it  in  making  p? 
The  lesson  may  conclude  by  requiring  the  pupils  to 
make  each  of  the  letters  upon  the  blackboard  when 
its  name  is  given. 


THE   ALPHABET.  173 

4th  The  Wanner  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  with  Let- 
t^r-Blocks. — It  is  easy  to  obtain  small  blocks  with 
letters  painted  or  pasted  upon  them,  and  these  may 
be  made  to  answer  a  good  purpose  in  teaching  the 
Alphabet.  To  make  the  lesson  most  interesting 
and  profitable,  each  pupil  should  possess  a  set  of  the 
blocks. 

At  recitation,  the  pupils  should  be  stationed 
around  a  table  or  desk,  each  with  his  blocks  before 
him.  The  teacher  may  first  require  the  pupils  to 
separate  all  the  letters  they  think  they  know  from 
those  they  do  not,  and  have  mistakes  corrected  by 
the  class.  He  may  then  take  up  a  block  upon  which 
is  the  letter  he  designs  to  teach,  and  make  them 
acquainted  with  its  form  and  name,  and  request  each 
pupil  to  select  a  similar  letter  from  among  those 
before  him.  If  any  make  mistakes,  the  class  should 
correct  them.  When  several  letters  have  been 
selected  in  this  way,  the  remaining  time  of  the  reci 
tation  may  be  devoted  to  teaching  those  selected. 
Suppose  <?,  e,  h,  and  k  to  be  the  letters  selected. 
Each  pupil  will  push  aside  all  his  other  blocks,  and 
with  these  only  before  him,  the  recitation  is  ready 
to  proceed.  The  teacher  may  hold  up  each  letter 
in  succession,  and  inquire  its  name;  a  pupil  may  be 
appointed  to  hold  up  the  letters,  while  the  others 
name  them ;  or  all  may  be  required  to  select  the 
letters  when  the  teacher  gives  their  names.  The 
teacher  may  make  words  with  the  letter-blocks,  and 
ask  the  pupils  to  imitate  them,  both  when  they  have 
the  privilege  of  looking  at  them,  and  from  memory; 
or  words,  as  models,  may  be  given  in  books,  or 
placed  on  a  blackboard. 
15* 


174-  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

Letter-blocks  may  be  cut  into  sections  ;  and  pupils 
can  be  amused  and  instructed  in  putting  the  sections 
together  so  as  to  form  letters.  The  differences  be- 

O 

tween  letters  which  are  nearly  alike  can  be  strikingly 
exhibited  in  this  way.  If,  for  example,  one  block 
represented  the  stem  of  the  letters  5,  d,  p,  and  <?,  and 
another  the  curve,  it  would  be  easy  to  show  their 
relative  position  in  the  formation  of  these  letters. 

The  letter-blocks  can  be  used  most  conveniently 
with  a  frame.  Such  a  frame  is  called  a  Reading- 
Frame.  The  body  of  the  frame  maybe  made  some 
what  like  a  common  blackboard,  about  three  feet 
wide,  and  long  enough  to  allow  two  feet  to  each 
member  of  a  class.  At  convenient  distances  apart, 
horizontal  grooves  should  be  placed  along  the  face 
of  the  frame  in  such  a  manner  that  the  letter- 
blocks  would  stand  upright  when  placed  in  them. 
At  the  base  of  the  frame,  and  extending  out  a  foot 
or  more  in  front,  there  should  be  boxes  appro 
priately  divided  into  apartments  for  the  blocks.  All 
the  Alphabetical  exercises  which  can  be  performed 
with  letter-blocks,  can  be  better  performed  with  a 
frame  constructed  in  this  manner.  It  is  used  some 
what  as  type  are  set;  and  words  and  sentences  can 
be  built  up  and  taken  apart  by  children  with  as  much 
interest  as  they  would  take  in  a  puzzle.  With  the 
"Education  Tables,"  manufactured  at  Windham, 
Connecticut,  and  consisting  of  block-letters  moving 
in  grooves,  I  have  seen  children  teach  themselves  to 
spell  words  and  to  read  short  sentences  with  very 
little  assistance,  and  that  given  in  answer  to  their 
questions. 

It  has  now  been  shown  how  books,  cards,  slalea 


THE    ALPHABET.  175 

and  blackboards,  and  letter-blocks  may  be  used  in 
teaching  the  Alphabet.  All  that  remains  to  be  said 
is  that  all  these  articles  of  apparatus  may  be  used 
by  the  teacher  at  his  pleasure,  or  they  may  be  com 
bined  in  teaching.  A  teacher  violates  no  principle 
if  he  use  book,  cards,  blackboard,  and  blocks  at 
the  same  recitation.  Children  are  fond  of  variety, 
and  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  a  teacher  who 
varies  his  methods  and  means  of  teaching  will  cause 
his  pupils  to  make  more  progress  than  one  who  con 
fines  himself  to  a  single  method  or  to  the  same 
means,  even  though  he  may  choose  the  best. 

2.  THE  WORD  METHOD.  —The  ABC  method  of 
teaching  the  Alphabet  commences  with  letters,  and 
when  the  pupil  is  sufficiently  acquainted  with  these, 
he  proceeds  to  learn  words  by  a  process  of  synthesis. 
The  method  of  teaching  the  Alphabet  about  to  be 
described  commences  with  words,  and  proceeds  by 
a  process  of  analysis  to  resolve  them  into  their  com 
ponent  letters. 

The  first  step  in  a  linguistic  course  of  study  is  to 
become  acquainted  with  oral  words.  Children  learn 
the  names  of  things.  They  learn  to  talk.  Starting 
here,  there  may  be  found  a  series  of  nice  gradations, 
which,  if  followed  in  teaching,  will  lead  naturally  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  Alphabet. 

1st.  Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  Pictures. — The 
pupil  has  learned  the  names  of  objects.  By  pictures 
he  will  learn  that  objects  can  be  represented,  and  he 
will  acquire  the  power  also  of  looking  closely  at  the 
details  of  different  forms  in  order  that  he  may  dis- 


176  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

tinguish  one  from  another.  These  picture-lesson  a 
may  be  given  from  books  or  cards  prepared  for  the 
purpose. 

2d.  Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  Words.  —  These 
lessons  may  at  first  embrace  only  the  words  which 
stand  for  the  objects  represented  in  the  pictures. 
They  should  be  printed  near  the  pictures  in  order 
that  an  intimate  association  may  be  formed  between 
the  picture,  its  name,  and  the  word  which  stands 
for  the  name.  In  asylums  for  the  blind,  labels  with 
raised  letters  cut  upon  them,  are  sometimes  attached 
to  familiar  objects,  in  order  that  an  easy  connection 
can  be  formed  between  the  object  and  the  word 
which  symbolizes  it.  After  such  an  introduction, 
the  pupil  should  be  exercised  upon  the  names  of 
words,  disconnected  from  pictures  or  objects.  A  set 
of  cards  could  be  easily  contrived  presenting,  first, 
pictures  without  words;  second,  pictures  with  words, 
and,  last,  words  without  pictures. 

3d.  Lessons  upon  the  Names  of  1  etters. — Having 
learned  to  use  spoken  words,  and  to  distinguish  some 
written  words,  pupils  would  seem  to  be  prepared  to 
analyze  these  words  and  ascertain  the  parts  of  which 
they  are  composed,  or  to  learn  their  letters.  The 
words  first  selected  for  analysis  should  be  short, 
should  represent  some  familiar  object,  and  should 
be  composed  of  letters  which  are  easily  learned; 
such  as  ox,  cow,  cat,  boy,  hen,  &c.  In  analyzing  words 
into  letters,  books,  cards,  slates,  blackboards,  and 
letter-blocks  may  be  used  as  described  when  speak 
ing  of  the  ABC  method.  Pupils,  having  been 


THE   ALPHABET.  177 

made  familiar  with  the  letters  composing  certain 
words,  can  make  the  words  on  slates  and  blackboards, 
or  form  them  with  letter-blocks. 

Several  reasons  may  be  given  in  favor  of  the  Word 
method  of  teaching  the  Alphabet. 

It  is  the  natural  method.  Children  use  words  in 
speaking,  and  the  transition  seems  natural  from 
spoken  words  to  written  words,  and  then  to  the 
letters  of  which  words  are  composed.  If  we  com 
mence  with  letters,  there  can  be  no  immediate  con 
nection  between  that  knowledge  of  language  which 
the  pupil  has  and  that  which  he  is  expected  to  ac 
quire.  Besides,  the  "Word  method  follows  the  order 
in  which  written  language  was  invented.  Characters 
were  first  used  for  objects,  next  for  words,  and  last 
for  letters. 

It  possesses  more  interest  for  children.  A  child 
cannot  be  made  to  take  much  interest  in  abstract, 
arbitrary  forms  like  a,  b,  c ;  while  all  children  delight 
in  talking  about  a  bird,  a  dog,  a  bell,  a  coach,  and  con 
sequently  may  be  pleased  to  learn  the  words  for 
such  objects,  and  the  letters  composing  such  words. 
Teachers  unconsciously  show  the  truth  of  what  is 
here  said,  when  they  tell  their  pupils  that  a  stands 
'for  apple,  b  for  boy,  and  d  for  dog.,  &c. 

It  aids  pupils  in  learning  to  pronounce.  The 
pupil  necessarily  learns  the  pronunciation  of  some 
words  in  learning  the  Alphabet,  but  the  benefit 
claimed  has  reference  to  the  habit  he  acquires  of 
associating  the  names  of  words  with  their  forms ; 
and  it  will  be  shown  in  the  article  on  methods  of 
teaching  pronunciation  that  the  learner  is  more  de 
pendent  for  his  skill  in  pronuciation  upon 


178  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

associations  than  upon  the  names  or  the  sounds  oi 
the  letters. 

Two  additional  suggestions  will  close  the  discus 
sion  : 

The  names  and  the  sounds  of  the  letters  should 
be  taught  cotemporaneously.  If  the  ABC 
method  be  adopted,  the  powers  of  the  letters  should 
be  taught  before  attempting  to  teach  pronunciation, 
for  the  names  of  the  letters  are  of  little  use  in  pro 
nouncing.  Practice  will  prove  moreover  that  both 
the  names  and  sounds  of  letters  can  be  taught 
in  nearly  the  same  time  that  either  can  be,  and 
hence  dictates  the  policy  of  teaching  them  together. 
If  the  Word  method  be  adopted,  the  analysis  of 
words  into  the  letters  of  which  they  are  composed, 
and  into  their  component  sounds,  will  prove  each  an 
advantage  to  the  other.  The  variety  this  double 
analysis  will  furnish  will  add  interest  to  the  lesson, 
and  since  the  eye  is  engaged  in  one,  and  the  ear  in 
the  other,  the  process  cannot  be  wearisome.  Noth 
ing  need  be  said  specially  in  regard  to  the  methods 
of  teaching  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  as  their  names 
and  sounds  must  be  taught  substantially  in  the  same 
manner.  The  sounds  of  letters,  however,  are  more 
difficult  to  utter  than  their  names,  and  the  teacher 
must  train  his  pupils  to  utter  them  after  him,  and 
carefully  guide  them  in  placing  their  organs  of 
speech  in  the  proper  position  to  do  so. 

The  capital  and  small  letters  should  be  taught  at 
the  same  time.  Those  letters  which  are  alike  will 
be  remembered  from  their  resemblance;  and  those 
that  differ,  from  contrast;  and  one  class  of  letters 
will  be  needed  by  pupils  about  as  soon  as  the  other. 


PRONUNCIATION.  179 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation  consists  in  naming  words  upon 
seeing  the  characters  which  compose  them,  or  hear 
ing  uttered  the  names  of  these  characters  or  the 
sounds  represented  by  them.  In  reading,  words  are 
usually  pronounced  upon  seeing  the  characters  which 
compose  them.  A  familiar  word  can  be  pronounced 
without  seeing  it,  if  some  one  name  the  letters  of 
which  it  is  composed ;  and  the  pronunciation  of  all 
words  is  but  the  combination  of  their  elementary 
sounds. 

The  orthographical  peculiarities  of  the  English 
language  render  the*  work  of  acquiring  its  pronun 
ciation  exceedingly  difficult.  If  there  was  a  single 
character  to  represent  every  elementary  sound  in  the 
language,  the  name  and  sound  of  the  letters  would 
be  identical,  and  the  pronunciation  of  a  word  would 
merely  consist  in  a  synthesis  of  its  elementary  sounds 
and  could  present  no  serious  impediment  to  the  pro 
gress  of  a  learner.  But  we  are  to  speak  of  methods 
of  teaching  the  Pronunciation  of  the  English  Lan 
guage,  and  must  therefore  accept  it  as  it  is. 

Pronunciation  may  be  taught  in  two  ways ;  first, 
by  causing  the  pupil  to  name  or  notice  the  characters 
composing  words,  and  utter  in  combination  the 
sounds  they  are  intended  to  represent.  This  may 
be  called  the  Synthetic  method.  Second,  by  causing 
the  pupil  to  associate  the  names  of  words  with  theii 
forms.  This  may  be  called  the  Associative  method. 

1.  THE  SYNTHETIC  METHOD. — The  names  of  ali 
words  are  syntheses  of  their  elementary  sounds.  If 
each  linguistic  sound  was  represented  by  a  single 


180  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

letter,  and  the  name  and  sound  of  the  letter  were 
the  same,  the  teaching  of  Pronunciation  would  con 
sist  :  first,  in  acquainting  the  pupil  with  the  elemen 
tary  sounds  ;  second,  in  impressing  upon  his  memory 
the  characters  by  which  these  sounds  are  repre 
sented;  and,  third,  in  teaching  him  to  pronounce 
words  by  uttering  the  sounds  in  combination.  This 
is  strictly  a  process  of  synthesis. 

With  respect  to  the  English  language,  each  sound 
is  not  represented  by  a  single  letter,  and  the  names 
and  sounds  of  the  letters  are  seldom  identical.  Our 
present  task  is  to  show  how  the  Pronunciation  of 
such  a  language  can  be  taught  synthetically.  As 
might  be  supposed,  the  Synthetic  method  has  as 
sumed  several  forms,  each  of  which  will  be  dis 
cussed  in  its  order. 

1st.  The  Alphabetic  Method.  —  To  commence  pro 
perly  the  work  of  teaching  Pronunciation  according 
to  this  method,  the  pupils  must  know  the  names  of 
the  letters  of  the  Alphabet.  When  able  to  point  out 
and  name  all  the  letters  presented  individually,  they 
are  required  to  point  them  out  and  name  them  as 
they  occur  in  words,  and  then  to  pronounce  the 
words.  At  first,  monosyllabic  words  which  contain 
no  silent  letters  are  selected,  and  afterwards  the 
pupils  are  gradually  introduced  to  more  difficult 
monosyllabic,  dissyllabic,  and  polysyllabic  words. 

This  is  the  method  generally  practiced  in  our 
schools;  but  it  will  require  little  argument  to  show 
that  it  cannot  be  the  best  that  might  be  adopted. 
The  radical  error  underlying  it  is  the  assumptf  .n  that 
the  name  of  a  word  is  a  synthesis  of  tLe  names  of 


PRONUNCIATION.  l8J 

the  letters  composing  it — a  thing  which  is  not  true 
of  a  single  word  in  the  English  language.  A  child 
cannot  know  upon  merely  naming  the  letters  in  a 
word,  what  sounds  they  represent,  whether  other 
letters  may  not  represent  the  same  sounds,  or 
v;hether  they  represent  any  sounds  at  all.  Take 
such  simple  words  as  at,  go,  me;  name  the  letters, 
and  then  comhine  the  sounds  uttered ;  and  there 
will  he  formed  a  result  wholly  unlike  the  names 
of  these  words.  If  the  simplest  words  cannot  be 
pronounced  "by  combining  the  names  of  their  com 
ponent  letters,  still  less  can  words  like  leisure,  vic 
tuals,  phthisic,  knife,  yacht,  ycleped,  and  thousands  of 
others  whose  pronunciation  could  hardly  be  guessed 
from  a  knowledge  of  their  orthography. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  pupils  do  learn 
to  pronounce  in  schools  where  no  other  method  of 
teaching  Pronunciation  than  the  Alphabetic  is  used. 
The  proper  explanation  of  this  fact  is  that  the 
teacher  supposes  he  is  teaching  according  to  one 
method  when  he  is  actually  teaching  according  to 
another.  The  child  is  not  guided  to  the  pronun 
ciation  of  a  word  by  naming  its  letters,  as  many 
teachers  seem  to  think,  but  he  learns  to  associate 
the  name  of  the  word  which  the  teacher  gives  him 
with  its  form,  the  parts  of  which  he  has  named. 
Every  teacher  who  has  used  this  method  will  testify 
that  after  pupils  had  named  the  letters  composing  a 
word,  he  had  to  give  them  its  pronunciation,  and 
sometimes  to  repeat  it  again  and  again,  before  it 
became  fixed  in  their  minds.  In  stating  this,  it  ia 
not  intended  to  be  denied  that  naming  the  letters 
may  sometimes  aid  the  pupil  in  pronouncing 

16 


182  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

The  names  of  letters  may  do  something  to  suggest 
their  power,  when  practice  has  made  these  powers 
partially  familiar;  and  so  far  as  this  can  he  the 
case,  some  advantage  in  pronouncing  may  be  de 
rived  from  the  Alphabetic  method. 

2nd.  The  Phonic  Method. — According  to  the  Pho 
nic  method,  the  teacher  first  imparts  to  his  pupils  a 
knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  language.  His 
next  object  is  to  teach  them  to  combine  sounds. 
This  he  may  do  by  uttering  individual  sounds,  and 
then  showing  how  they  can  be  combined;  and  after 
wards  requiring  his  pupils  to  utter  sounds  and  make 
combinations  of  them.  Such  lessons  are  valuable, 
and  children  may  be  taught  in  this  way  a  correct 
oral  pronunciation. 

The  point  of  difficulty  with  the  Phonic  method 
is  to  apply  it  to  written  words.  As  applied  in 
teaching  the  pronunciation  of  the  German  language 
(and  this  method  comes  to  us  from  Germany),  it 
answers  a  good  purpose,  because  nearly  all  the  Ger 
man  letters  have  but  a  single  sound,  and  where  this 
is  not  the  case,  the  power  of  the  letter  can  gene 
rally  be  determined  by  the  notation.  The  peculia 
rities  of  the  Orthography  of  the  English  language, 
with  the  same  characters  representing  several 
sounds,  and  the  same  sounds  represented  by  dif 
ferent  characters,  its  silent  letters,  and  its  double 
consonants,  must  render  the  application  of  the  Pho 
nic  method  to  the  teaching  of  the  pronunciation  of 
our  language  a  work  of  much  difficulty.  Indeed, 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  do  it  to  any  useful  extent, 
without  employing  the  aid  of  orthographical  rules, 


U^CIATION'.  1«3 

classifications  of  words,  and  systems  of  notation ; 
but  with  these  auxiliaries  many  teachers  esteem  it 
the  most  philosophical  and  practical  of  the  methods 
now  in  use.  The  leading  features  of  the  method 
when  thus  used  must  be  described. 

As  already  stated,  the  first  step  in  the  Phonic 
method  is  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  language  and  the  characters  by  which 
they  are  represented ;  and  as  there  are  more  than 
twenty-six  of  these  sounds,  and  some  of  the  letters 
of  the  Alphabet  have  several  sounds,  some  system 
of  notation  must  be  adopted. 

The  second  step  in  this  method  is  to  teach  pupils 
to  combine  these  elementary  sounds  so  as  to  form 
words.  The  work  of  combining  sounds  may  com 
mence  as  soon  as  pupils  become  acquainted  with 
a  sufficient  number  of  them  to  form  combinations. 

It  is  evident  that  these  two  steps  constitute  the 
whole  work  of  teaching  Pronunciation,  but  in  prac 
tice  many  difficulties  will  be  encountered  of  which 
something  must  be  said. 

It  is  best  to  teach  first  the  short  sounds  of  the 
vowels :  as  a  in  at,  e  in  en,  i  in  it,  o  in  ox,  u  in  us. 
!N"ext  should  be  taught  the  sounds  of  the  simple 
consonants :  as  b,  d,  f,  I,  m,  n,  p,  &c.  Then  come 
words  of  two  letters ;  as  an,  at,  in,  ox,  &c. ;  or  combi 
nations  that  form  parts  of  words :  as  ad,  et,  in,  ol,  up, 
&c. ;  and  afterwards  words  composed  in  the  same 
way  of  three  or  four  letters  may  be  given.  The 
word-tables  composed  of  such  monosyllables  as  ba, 
ma,  le,  he,  si,  no,  tu,  bla,  ble,  bad,  mad,  &e.,  as  found 
in  our  old-fasnioned  spelling-books,  could  be  made 
very  useful  as  exercises  in  phonic  synthesis. 


184  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

The  preceding  paragraph  points  out  what  ia 
appropriate  in  lessons  for  beginners.  In  advancing 
further,  it  will  be  best  to  choose  a  spelling-book  in 
which  words  are  arranged  according  to  their  analo- 

o  o 

gies  in  respect  to  some  peculiarity  in  sound,  and 
presented  in  an  order  progressing  from  the  easy  to 
the  difficult.  Interest  may  be  added  to  first  lessons 
by  introducing  words  that  represent  objects  and 
actions  familiar  to  children. 

In  giving  first  lessons  in  Pronunciation  according 
to  this  method,  cards,  letter-blocks,  and  blackboards 
may  be  advantageously  used.     As  an  example  of 
the  mode  of  teaching  such  lessons,  an  exercise  upon 
a  blackboard  will  be  described.     Let  the  teacher 
draw  a  letter,  say  a,  upon  the  blackboard,  and  re 
quire  the  pupils  to  give  its  sound ;  then  t  may  be 
placed  on  the  right  side  of  it,  its  sound  given,  and 
the  two  sounds  combined ;  and,  afterwards,  r  may 
be  placed  upon  the  left  side  of  it,  its  sound  given 
also,  and  the  whole  word,  rat,  pronounced.    Erasing 
r,  £,/,  m,  n,  s,  or  v  may  be  substituted,  and  the  pupils 
required  to  pronounce  the  new  combinations.     The 
other  letters  composing  the  word  can  be  changed  in 
a  similar  way,  and  other  words  can  be  chosen  and 
built  up  or  taken  apart  in  a  manner,  when  performed 
by  an  ingenious  teacher,  that  never  fails  to  engage 
the  attention  of  pupils.     At  times,  it  may  be  well 
for  pupils  to  point  out  or  draw  in  their  order  the 
characters  which  represent  particular  sounds,  uttered 
by  the  teacher,  and  then  combine  them  into  words; 
or   the   combinations   may    be   made   without   the 
characters.     As  soon  as  pupils  are  made  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  elementarv  sounds  of  the  lan< 


PRONUNCIATION.  18 

gnage,  nnd  the  characters  used  to  represent  them, 
and  have  attained  some  facility  in  combining  them 
into  syllables  and  monosyllabic  words  by  practicing 
a  series  of  exercises  designed  to  accomplish  that 
end,  they  may  take  up  the  more  formal  lessons  of  a 
well-arranged  spelling-book.  In  such  a  book  the 
words  are  carefully  classed  according  to  their  analo 
gies  of  sound,  arid  the  character  or  combination  of 
characters  which  is  used  to  represent  the  sound, 
common  to  the  whole,  is  placed  prominently  at  the 
head  of  the  lesson,  and  serves  as  a  key  to  the  pro 
nunciation.  For  example  a,  as  in /ate,  might  be  the 
key,  and  then  the  lesson  would  contain  such  words 
as  aid,  gay,  they,  veil,  break,  guage,  $c. ;  or  the  sound 
of  sh  in  ship,  might  be  made  to  indicate  the  pro 
nunciation  of  a  large  class  of  words  in  which  that 
sound  is  represented  by  ti,  si,  ci,  ch,  «.  ce,  se,  and  sch. 

After  pupils  have  learned  the  pronunciation  of 
the  words  of  a  lesson  by  making  a  synthesis  of  their 
elementary  sounds,  they  must  have  much  practice 
in  naming  words  without  uttering  the  individual 
sounds  of  which  they  are  composed.  The  division 
of  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  into  syllables 
is  proper  for  children  in  their  first  efforts  to  pro 
nounce  ;  but  the  same  words  should  be  immediately 
pronounced  without  such  division.  A  Spelling- 
Book,  arranged  in  conformity  with  the  method  of 
teaching  Pronunciation  now  indicated,  should  con 
tain  many  miscellaneous  exercises,  in  which  all 
classification  and  all  notation  should  be  discarded. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  the 
Phonic  method  of  teaching  Pronunciation  is  more 
philosophical  than  the  Alphabetic  method.  It  pre- 
16* 


t86  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

sents  the  subject  in  a  series  of  well-graded  exer 
cises.  It  is  consistent  with  itself,  systematic,  and 
logical.  There  are,  however,  some  objections  to  it 
which  must  be  noticed. 

It  is  objected  that  the  classes  of  words  required 
by  this  method,  if  made  according  to  their  analogous 
sounds,  would  be  so  numerous  that  few  children 
could  remember  them.  Besides,  if  all  the  words 
belonging  to  a  particular  class  were  to  be  always 
arranged  in  a  single  lesson,  it  would  bring  together 
both  easy  and  difficult  words  in  a  manner  tbat  could 
not  fail  to  perplex  the  learner.  The  authors  of 
Spelling-Books,  it  would  seem,  might  easily  obviate 
this  objection. 

It  is  objected  further  that  pupils  taught  to  rely 
upon  analogy  of  sounds  or  a  system  of  notation 
for  the  pronunciation  of  words,  would  find  them 
selves  greatly  perplexed  in  dispensing  with  these 
helps  when  it  became  necessary  in  general  reading 
The  miscellaneous  exercises  in  pronouncing  referred 
to  on  a  preceding  page  would  remove  this  objection. 

It  is  objected  finally  that  there  are  many  words 
in  the  English  language  that  do  not  admit  of  classi 
fication  with  other  words  in  any  way  that  would  be 
useful  to  a  learner,  and  whose  Orthography  is  so 
peculiar  that  a  synthesis  of  their  elementary  sounds 
would  scarcely  aid  him  in  remembering  their  Pro 
nunciation.  This  is  the  most  serious  objection  that 
can  be  brought  against  the  Phonic  method  of  teach 
ing  Pronunciation,  and  I  see  no  way  of  answering 
it.  It  would  seem  that  the  Pronunciation  of  such 
words  can  be  best  learned  by  a  different  method. 


PRONUNCIATION.  187 

8d,  The  Phonetic  Method. — It  is  generally  agreed 
that  there  are  over  forty  elementary  sounds  in  the 
English  language.  Our  Alphabet  contains  hut 
twenty-six  letters.  The  advocates  of  the  Phonetic 
method  of  teaching  Pronunciation  generally  use 
the  letters  of  our  present  Alphabet,  each  to  repre 
sent  one  sound,  and  invent  others  as  signs  for  the 
Bounds  unrepresented. 

The  first  step  in  the  application  of  this  method 
is  to  teach  the  elementary  sounds  and  the  characters 
which  have  been  agreed  upon  to  represent  them. 

The  second  step  is  to  teach  pupils  to  combine 
sounds  when  uttered  by  the  teacher  or  suggested 
by  their  appropriate  symbols.  These  combinations 
consist  at  first  of  two  sounds,  then  of  three,  and 
thus  on,  until  they  include  all  of  those  found  in  the 
longest  words.  Spelling-books  and  spelling-cards 
suited  to  this  method  have  been  prepared  and  can 
be  used  as  in  the  other  methods.  The  same  advan 
tage,  too,  may  be  derived  from  the  use  of  black 
boards  and  letter-blocks. 

The  third  step  consists  in  having  pupils  make 
the  transition  from  the  pronunciation  of  words 
spelled  phonetically  to  those  spelled  in  the  common 
way.  This  transition  may  be  made  by  placing  the 
same  words  spelled  in  both  ways  in  parallel  columns 
or  in  alternate  lines.  There  is  so  strong  a  resem 
blance  or  so  great  a  contrast  between  the  two  modes 
of  spelling  that  pupils  do  not  find  much  difficulty, 
it  is  claimed,  in  passing  from  the  phonetic  word- 
symbols  to  the  common  word-symbols. 

It  is  but  just  to  say  that  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  apparently  with  fairness,  designed  to 


188  INSTRUCTION-   IN   LANGUAGE. 

test  the  relative  advantages  of  the  Phonetic  and  other 
methods  of  teaching  Pronunciation  ;  and  results 
have  been  reported  decidedly  favorable  to  the  former. 

Upon  the  other  hand,  other  experiments  have  failed 
to  yield  the  same  results  and  some  very  strong  objec 
tions  have  been  urged  against  the  Phonetic  method. 

It  is  alleged  that  a  pupil  taught  to  pronounce 
upon  the  principle  that  every  letter  is  sounded  and 
that  every  sound  is  represented  by  a  single  character, 
would  be  completely  bewildered  in  attempting  to 
dispose  of  the  silent  letters,  and  the  numerous  char 
acters  used  to  represent  the  same  sound,  and  nu 
merous  sounds  represented  by  the  same  characters, 
which  are  incident  to  our  English  Orthography. 
In  consequence,  it  is  denied  that  the  transition  from 
the  pronunciation  of  words  spelled  Phonetically  to 
the  pronunciation  of  those  spelled  in  the  ordinary 
manner  can  be  easily  made,  or  made  at  all  without  a 
departure  from  the  principle  of  the  Phonetic  method. 

It  is  maintained,  too,  that  pupils  taught  according 
to  the  Phonetic  method,  will  experience  great  diffi 
culty  in  learning  to  spell.  Practicing  phonic  ana 
lysis  exclusively,  they  would  be  apt  to  make  the 
number  of  letters  in  a  word  equal  to  the  number 
of  its  elementary  sounds,  and  this  would  tend  to 
introduce  errors  into  their  Orthography. 

2.  THE  ASSOCIATIVE  METHOD.  — According  to  the 
Associative  Method,  Pronunciation  is  learned  by 
associating  the  names  of  words  with  their  forms. 
~No  conscious  synthesis  of  the  names  of  letters  or  of 
sounds  represented  by  them  is  made,  but  the  pupil 
is  taught  at  once  the  written  signs  for  oral  words, 


PRONUNCIATION.  189 

Children  can  be  taught  to  pronounce  by  this 
method.  Oral  language  exists.  Children  can  talk, 
They  use  words.  Written  language  was  designed 
to  be  the  medium  of  communication  between  the 
ear  and  the  eye  —  to  convert  the  products  of  the 
former  sense  into  forms  recognizable  by  the  latter. 
It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  various  forms  of  writing 
have  prevailed  at  different  periods,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  in  Stenography  and  Telegraphing  the 
common  word-signs  are  not  used.  Besides,  it  is 
plain  that  any  arbitrary  symbol  may  be  agreed  upon 
to  represent  a  word,  and  by  familiar  association  be 
made  to  suggest  it.  It  is  upon  this  principle  that 
the  Associative  Method  of  teaching  Pronunciation 
is  based,  and  it  has  no  reference  to  the  component 
letters,  or  the  component  sounds  of  words. 

Since  the  association  between  the  names  of  words 
and  their  forms  is  arbitrary,  the  irregularities  of  the 
Orthography  of  the  English  language  present  no 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  acquiring  its  pronunciation 
that  would  not  be  presented  in  a  language  strictly 
phonetic. 

Teaching,  according  to  this  method,  will  be  suc 
cessful  in  proportion  as  it  succeeds  in  making  a 
lasting  association  between  the  names  of  words  and 
their  forms.  Much  skill  will  be  required  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  to  attain  this  end. 

It  is  best  to  select  for  first  lessons  words  which 
stand  for  things  in  which  children  are  most  inter- 

O 

ested,  as  boy,  girl,  dog,  cat,  whip,  tree,  &c.  These  may 
be  given  first  in  connection  with  pictures,  but  after 
wards  without  the  pictures. 

The  second  class  of  lessons  should  contain  such 
words  as  of,  in,  a,  to,  an,  the,  and,  is,  are,  lias,  have,  &c. 


190  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

The  third  class  of  lessons  may  embody  the  same 
words  in  short  sentences.  These  should  be  so  con 
structed  as  to  interest  children. 

In  all  these  lessons,  books  and  cards  suitably 
prepared,  letter-blocks,  and  blackboards  may  be 
advantageously  used.  The  forms  of  words  must  be 
impressed  upon  the  pupils'  memories  by  describing 
and  analyzing  them,  talking  about  the  objects  they 
represent,  and  making  their  names  familiar  by 
frequent  repetition. 

The  lessons  which  succeed  these,  containing  more 
difficult  words,  should  be  arranged  upon  the  same 
principle,  and  instruction  given  in  them  in  the 
same  manner.  Each  lesson  should  consist  of  a 
proper  number  of  words,  and  when  the  pupil  is 
familiar  with  their  pronunciation  individually  pre 
sented,  he  can  be  taught  to  pronounce  them  in 
sentences  intermixed  with  words  learned  in  pre 
ceding  lessons. 

In  estimating  the  value  of  this  method,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  no  one  can  pronounce  words  with 
facility  who  has  not  formed  a  familiar  association 
between  their  names  and  their  forms.  The  attempt 
to  do  this  directly,  in  the  manner  proposed  by  the 
Associative  Method  encounters  some  difficulties. 

It  would  be  a  task  of  great  difficulty  to  acquaint 
pupils  with  the  immense  vocabulary  of  the  English 
language  without  the  aid  of  phonic  synthesis  or  the 
analogies  of  the  language.  It  would  be  subject  to 
the  same  objections  as  the  Verbal  System  of  writing 
practiced  by  the  Ancients,  or  the  clumsy  word-signs 
of  the  Chinese. 

It  would  also  involve  the  additional  labor  upon 


PRONUNCIATION".  191 

the  teacher  of  pronouncing  every  word  for  the 
pupil.  In  strict  accordance  with  the  method,  the 
pupil  could  not  aid  himself  in  pronouncing  by 
naming  letters,  giving  sounds,  seeking  out  analo 
gies,  or  searching  Dictionaries. 

Sufficient  has  "been  said  of  each  of  the  methods 
of  teaching  Pronunciation  when  applied  indepen 
dently.  It  has  been  seen  that  difficulties  lie  in  the 
path  of  all  of  them,  and  it  remains  to  be  ascertained 
whether  some  of  these  may  not  be  removed  by  a 
judicious  union  of  methods.  The  method  thus 
formed  may  be  called  the  Eclectic  Method.  Some 
repetition  may  be  necessary  in  describing  it. 

A  word  is  the  simplest  subdivision  of  discorrse. 
A  child  uses  words  when  he  begins  to  talk,  not 
sentences  on  the  one  hand,  or  letters  or  elementary 
sounds  on  the  other.  It  is  most  natural,  in  learning 
written  language,  that  the  pupil  should  also  com 
mence  with  words — that  he  should  translate  worda 
he  can  understand  by  sound  into  words  he  can 
understand  by  sight.  So  far  as  the  first  lessons  in 
Pronunciation  are  concerned,  then,  I  would  follow 
the  Associative  Method.  It  may  be  followed  to  the 
extent  of  teaching  pupils  to  read  short  sentences. 

As  soon  as  pupils  are  able  to  pronounce  a  certain 
number  of  words  at  sight,  or  while  they  are  learn 
ing  to  do  it,  they  should  be  required  to  analyze  them 
into  their  component  letters  and  sounds,  and,  after 
wards,  be  instructed  as  to  the  manner  in  which  ele 
mentary  sounds  are  combined  to  form  words,  and  as 
to  the  fact  that  letters  are  used  to  represent  sounds, 
and  that  their  names  and  their  sounds  are  different, 


192  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

All  this  should  be  abundantly  illustrated.  As  some 
of  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet  have  several  sounds, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  adopt  a  system  of  notation. 

From  this  point  on  through  the  Spelling-Book,  I 
would  adopt  the  arrangement  of  words  and  exercises 
previously  described  as  appropriate  to  the  Phonic 
method ;  but  I  would  not  adhere  to  that  metnod  in 
conducting  the  recitations.  I  wTould  conduct  recita 
tions  in  the  following  manner,  which,  I  think,  enables 
pupils  to  profit  by  what  is  good  in  all  methods. 
First,  let  the  teacher  pronounce  the  words  and  the 
pup'ls  imitate  him.  Second,  let  the  pupils  name 
the  elementary  sounds  in  a  word,  and  then  pro 
nounce  it.  Third,  let  the  pupils  name  the  letters 
composing  a  word,  and  then  pronounce  it.  Fourth, 
let  the  pupils  pronounce  the  word  without  giving 
the  elementary  sounds  or  naming  the  letters.  Of 
course,  the  words  should  be  disposed  of  in  this  way 
one  at  a  time.  The  first  step  enables  the  pupil  to 
obtain  a  correct  pronunciation  of  a  word,  and  to  ini 
tiate  an  association  between  its  name  and  its  form. 
The  second  is  an  exercise  in  phonic  synthesis.  The 
third  is  an  application  of  the  Alphabetic  method 
and  has  advantages  in  itself,  and  in  the  preparation 
for  learning  to  spell  which  it  affords.  The  fourth  is 
the  consummation  of  the  end  aimed  at — the  pronun 
ciation  of  a  \vord  at  sight.  Thus,  as  I  conceive,  the 
strong  points  of  one  method  may  be  made  to  supply 
the  weak  points  of  another,  and  each  deriving  help 
from  the  others,  an  Eclectic  method  can  be  formed 
that  is  at  once  philosophical  and  practical. 

Pupils  must  not  only  be  taught  to  pronounce 
words,  but  they  ought  to  be  taught  to  pronounce 


PEONUNCIATION.  193 

them  correctly;  and  it  is  requisite  that  something 
be  said  in  this  connection  regarding  the  method  of 
attaining  this  desirable  end.  Contrary  to  the  com 
mon  practice,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  pupil  acquire  a  correct  pronunciation  to  the 
greatest  extent  possible,  before  he  begins  to  read — 
pronouncing  words  in  sentences  is  not  reading. 

In  teaching  pupils  to  pronounce  correctly,  two 
things  must  be  attended  to:  first,  Enunciation; 
second,  Accent.  Enunciation  relates  to  the  manner 
of  uttering  sounds.  Accent  is  stress  of  voice  placed 
upon  particular  syllables  in  words. 

Certain  impediments  frequently  lie  in  the  way  of 
pupils'  acquiring  a  good  Enunciation.  Among  them 
are  imperfect  vocal  organs,  timidity,  and  bad  habits. 

"When  pupils  are  unable  to  utter  certain  sounds 
on  account  of  imperfect  vocal  organs,  the  teacher 
may,  in  some  cases  aid  in  removing  the  difficulty  by 
training  them  to  speak  with  due  deliberation,  with 
an  expiring  breath,  and  with  the  mouth  open,  so  as 
to  allow  the  weak  organs  freedom  of  movement ; 
but  a  want  of  time  in  school  will  generally  prevent 
that  prolonged  application  of  remedies  deemed 
. essential  to  effect  a  cure.  Lisping,  stammering, 
stuttering,  and  like  vocal  defects,  can  often  be  cured; 
but  special  schools  are  wanted  to  apply  properly  the 
means.  If  the  teacher  find  the  impediment  to  arise 
from  inability  to  utter  a  certain  sound,  he  can  often 
remove  it  by  securing  practice  upon  the  most  nearly 
related  sounds.  lie  can  do  something,  too,  by  show 
ing  the  position  of  the  organs  in  uttering  the  sounds 
with  which  difficulty  is  experienced.  He  can  always 
do  much  by  patiently  giving  general  vocal  culture. 

17 


194:  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

If  pupils  mispronounce  words  in  consequence  of 
their  timidity,  the  teacher  must  endeavor  to  gain 
their  confidence  by  speaking  words  of  encourage 
ment  and  showing  an  interest  in  their  work.  He 
must  also  lead  them  step  by  step  to  have  confi 
dence  in  themselves. 

Bad  habits  are  the  most  common  source  of  mis 
pronunciations.  Children  listen  to  words  incorrectly 
pronounced,  and,  of  course,  imitate  what  they  hear. 
The  spoken  language  of  few  neighborhoods  is  free 
from  errors ;  and  that  of  many  is  full  of  them. 
Children  learn  to  utter  certain  vocal  elements 
erroneously,  to  omit  them  when  they  ought  not  to 
be  omitted,  and  to  use  them  when  they  ought  not 
to  be  used.  These  bad  habits  can  only  be  corrected 
by  long  and  patient  training  in  phonic  analysis  and 
phonic  synthesis.  Pupils  must  be  made  familiar 
with  all  the  elementary  sounds  of  the  language. 
They  must  be  taught  to  make  words  by  combining 
sounds,  and  to  distinguish  the  simple  sounds  con 
tained  in  words.  They  should  be  allowed  much 
practice  upon  combinations  of  sounds  of  difficult 
utterance,  and  words  and  classes  of  words  which 
they  are  liable  to  mispronounce.  Great  difficulty 
will  be  experienced  with  the  vocal  sounds  in  unac 
cented  syllables,  but  the  teacher  must  make  his 
practice  conform  to  the  best  authorities  he  can  find 
upon  the  subject.  Beginners  may  derive  advantage 
from  a  division  of  words  into  syllables. 

All  words  in  the  English  language  of  more  than 
one  syllable  have  one  accented  syllable.  Polysylla 
bic  words  have  generally  both  a  primary  and  a  secon 
dary  accent.  The  placing  of  the  accent  is  an  impor- 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

tant  matter  in  pronouncing  words?-,  and  teachers 
should  carefully  train  their  pupils  to  do  it  properly. 
Their  own  pronunciation  should  be  a  correct  model 
for  imitation.  Patient  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
accentuation  of  words  new  to  pupils,  and  frequent 
repetition  is  necessary  to  break  up  habits  of  mispro 
nouncing  words  with  respect  to  which  they  have  been 
accustomed  to  place  the  accent  upon  the  wrong 
syllable.  Much  advantage  may  be  had  from  the 
practice  of  having  pupils  write  on  slates  or  black 
boards  columns  of  words,  and  then  mark  the  ac 
cented  syllables.  Lessons  of  the  same  kind  may  be 
made  with  the  words  as  arranged  in  Spelling-Books. 
As  soon  as  pupils  can  use  a  Dictionary,  they  should 
have  access  to  one.  It  will  only  be  added  that  moie 
attention  to  the  principles  of  Orthoepy  in  Primary 
schools  would  save  much  labor  in  higher  schools  and 
many  foolish  blunders  in  society. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Spelling  consists  in  expressing  the  characters 
composing  words  upon  hearing  or  conceiving  those 
words.  In  pronouncing,  the  forms  of  letters  are 
.presented  to  the  eye,  or  their  names  or  sounds  to 
the  ear,  and  the  pupils  are  expected  to  name  the 
words  thus  constituted.  Spelling  is  this  process 
reversed.  More  concisely,  it  may  be  said  that  in 
pronouncing,  we  have  given  letters  or  letter-sounds 
to  find  words  ;  and  in  spelling,  we  have  given  words 
to  find  letters  or  letter-sounds.  Pronunciation  is 
essentially  a  synthetic  process ;  but  Spelling  is  an 
analytic  process.  Logically,  Pronunciation  must 
precede  Spelling  in  a  course  of  study,  because 


196  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

children  must  be  acquainted  with  words  as  wholes 
before  they  can  reproduce  their  component  parts. 
Practically,  however,  it  may  be  convenient  to  in 
clude  exercises  in  both  in  the  same  lesson. 

Words  may  be  analyzed  in  two  ways ;  and  conse 
quently  there  are  two  methods  of  teaching  Orthog 
raphy.  The  first  method  consists  in  resolving  the 
words  into  their  elementary  sounds,  and  in  express 
ing  the  characters  which  represent  these  sounds. 
This  method  is  founded  upon  an  analysis  of  sound, 
and  depends  upon  the  sense  of  hearing.  It  may  be 
called  the  Auricular  method. 

The  second  method  consists  in  resolving  words 
into  their  several  parts,  and  in  expressing  these 
parts.  This  method  is  founded  upon  an  analysis  of 
form,  and  depends  upon  the  sense  of  seeing.  It 
may  be  called  the  Ocular  method 

Both  methods  are  dependant  upon  the  memory. 

1.  THE  AURICULAR  METHOD. — If  the  English  was 
strictly  a  phonetic  language,  the  Auricular  method 
of  teaching  spelling  would  have  advantages  over  any 
other  method.  In  that  case,  spelling  would  consist 
in  the  analysis  of  words  into  the  simple  sounds 
which  compose  them,  and  the  representation  of 
these  sounds  by  their  appropriate  characters.  Chil 
dren  could  be  readily  taught  to  do  this,  and  thus 
escape  the  heavy  task  of  memorizing  spelling-lessons. 
The  English  language,  however,  does  not  conform 
its  Orthography  to  the  Phonetic  principle.  Many 
of  the  letters  composing  words  are  silent.  Many 
letters  represent  more  than  one  sound,  and  many 
sounds  are  represented  by  more  than  one  letter. 


ORTHOGKAPHY.  197 

Even  with  words  of  the  simplest  Orthography,  an 
analysis  of  their  sound  never  gives  the  names  of  the 
letters. 

Orthography  is  the  reverse  of  Pronunciation.  The 
Auricular  method  of  teaching  Orthography  is  the 
reverse  of  the  Synthetic  method  of  teaching  Pro 
nunciation,  and  might  he  divided  into  the  same 
number  of  special  methods.  As  letters  can  he 
named  and  the  Pronunciation  of  words  sus^ested 

OO 

by  them,  so  the  names  of  words  may  suggest  their 
component  letters.  As  elementary  linguistic  sounds 
can  be  combined  to  form  words;  so  words  can  be 
analy/^.d  into  their  simplest  sounds.  As  a  classifi 
cation  of  words  according  to  their  analogies  aids  in 
learning  Pronunciation  working  forwards,  so  may 
such  a  classification  be  made  to  aid  in  the  work  of 
learning  Orthography  working  backwards.  As 
separate  characters  may  be  used  to  represent  all  the 
elements  employed  in  phonic  synthesis,  so  may 
they  be  used  to  represent  the  results  of  phonic 
analysis.  Thus  methods  of  teaching  Orthography 
might  be  arranged  to  correspond  to  the  Alpha 
betical,  the  Phonic,  and  the  Phonetic  methods  of 
teaching  Pronunciation.  This  detail  is  deemed 
unnecessary  here,  however,  since  whatever  merits 
or  demerits  these  methods  have  with  respect  to 
Pronunciation  they  must  have  with  respect  to 
Orthography. 

2.  THE  OCULAR  METHOD. — We  spell  more  by  form 

than   by  sound.      We  are  more  apt  to  remember 

letters  as  parts  of  whole  words,  than  we  are  to 

remember  them  as  characters  representing  sounds, 

17* 


198  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

We  use  the  sense  of  seeing  in  spelling  more  than 
that  of  hearing.  In  proof  of  this  position,  it  might 
be  stated  that  most  persons  are  accustomed  to  write 
words  with  respect  to  the  Orthography  of  which 
they  are  in  doubt,  or  to  conceive  their  form,  thus 
judging  whether  words  are  spelled  correctly  by 
their  looks. 

Proof-readers,  whom  I  have  consulted,  allege 
that  they  seldom  consider  what  elementary  sounds 
compose  words,  and  then  what  characters  represent 
them ;  but  they  think  of  words  as  pictures  which 
are  marred  by  bad  spelling. 

It  is  the  general  experience,  too,  that  the  blind 
epell  with  more  difficulty  than  the  deaf. 

The  Ocular  method  of  teaching  Orthography  is 
founded  upon  the  same  principle  as  the  Associative 
method  of  teaching  Pronunciation,  and  corresponds 
to  it.  By  this  method,  the  problem  of  Pronuncia 
tion  is :  given  the  form  of  a  word  to  determine  its 
name  ;  and  that  of  Orthography  is  :  given  the  name 
of  a  word  to  find  its  form.  Pronunciation  is  the 
translation  of  eye-language  into  ear-language,  and 
Orthography  is  the  translation  of  ear-language  into 
eye-language.  It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  teaching  Pronun 
ciation  by  the  Associative  method  belong  equally  to 
th3  Ocular  method  of  teaching  Orthography. 

In  the  preceding  Article  it  was  stated  that  the 
different  methods  of  teaching  Pronunciation  might 
be  combined,  and  that  an  Eclectic  method  might  be 
formed  that  would  avoid  many  of  the  objections 
which  could  be  made  to  each  of  these  methods  when 
used  by  itself,  and  embrace  the  certain  advantages 


ORTHOGRAPHY  199 

derived  from  all  of  them.  The  same  may  be  said 
in  reference  to  methods  of  teaching  Orthography. 
Pronunciation  and  Orthography  should  be  taught 
together,  and  both  require  the  same  arrangement 
of  subject-matter;  and  as  this  arrangement  Las 
already  been  indicated,  a  repetition  is  now  un 
called  for. 

As  the  most  important  thing  to  be  attended  to  in 
teaching  Orthography  is  to  impress  the  form  of 
vords  upon  the  memory  of  pupils,  some  suggestions 
may  be  made  with  reference  to  this  end.  The  cor 
rect  forms  of  words  may  be  impressed  upon  the 
memory  of  a  child  by  selecting  words  that  he  under 
stands,  and  that  represent  something  in  which  he  is 
interested.  It  may  be  done  by  calling  attention  to 
the  peculiar  forms  of  words,  their  analogies,  and  by 
requiring  pupils  to  draw  or  write  their  spelling- 
lessons  before  reciting  them.  If  pupils  be  taught  to 
spell  immediately  the  same  words  that  have  fur 
nished  their  pronouncing  or  reading  lesson,  it  will 
be  found  to  be  of  great  advantage.  One  exercise 
may  contain  words  correctly  spelled  with  which 
pupils  nay  be  made  familiar,  and  then  pass  on  to 
another  in  which  the  same  words  are  used  with 
letters  omitted,  added,  or  misplaced,  that  they  are 
required  to  correct.  Words  of  like  Pronunciation 
but  unlike  Orthography  can  be  most  easily  spelled 
when  their  meaning  is  known  and  contrasted. 
Pupils  should  be  made  familiar  with  the  various 
methods  of  spelling  words  of  doubtful  Orthography, 
and  for  this  purpose  lists  of  such  words  should  be 
frequently  spelled.  There  are  a  few  Orthographical 
rules,  such  as  those  with  respect  to  changing  y  into  t, 


200  INSTKUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

and  doubling  the  final  consonant,  a  knowledge  of 
which  may  be  profitable  to  pupils.  Each  rule  should 
be  fixed  in  the  mind  by  numerous  examples. 

After  this  statement  of  principles,  it  is  deemed 
proper  that  a  more  detailed  description  should  be 
given  of  methods  of  conducting  recitations  in  Or 
thography. 

1st.  Spelling  Exercises  for  Beginners. — Much  atten 
tion  should  be  paid  to  Orthography  in  our  Primary 
schools.  Those  who  do  not  learn  to  spell  well  when 
young,  seldom  acquire  the  ability  to  do  so.  Each 
lesson  should  be  pronounced  and  then  opelled. 
Pupils  may  repeat  the  names  of  words  utteied  by 
the  teacher  and  associate  them  with  their  proper 
word-signs.  They  may  name  the  letters  or  sounds 
composing  words  and  again  pronounce  them.  They 
may  pronounce  the  words,  and  then  give  the  letters 
or  sounds.  They  may  pronounce  the  words  with 
out  giving  either  the  letters  or  sounds.  Finally, 
they  should  spell  the  words  both  by  giving  the 
names  of  the  letters  and  the  elementary  sounds  of 
the  words.  Each  of  these  exercises  will  aid  the 
others,  and  all  ought  to  be  embraced  in  the  same 
lesson.  The  words  contained  in  every  primary  read 
ing  lesson  should  be  spelled,  and  the  words  used 
in  a  spelling  lesson  should  be  embraced  in  sentences 
and  read. 

A  Reading-Frame  with  block-letters  can  be  used 
very  advantageously  in  teaching  young  children  to 
sr  f  U.  Words  made  of  these  letters  can  be  imitated, 
tuKen  apart,  and  put  together  in  a  manner  well 
calculated  to  impress  their  forms  upon  the  pupil' I 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  201 

memory.  The  handling  of  the  letters  tends  to  fix 
the  attention  upon  their  relative  locations  in  words. 
Before  children  can  write,  they  may  draw  or  print 
words  upon  their  slates  or  upon  the  blackboard. 
They  can  copy  in  this  way  their  reading  and  pro 
nouncing  lessons. 

2d.  An  oral  Exercise  in  Spelling. — The  common 
mode  of  managing  an  exercise  in  oral  Spelling  is  to 
require  pupils  to  prepare  several  columns  of  words 
from  a  Spelling-Book.  A  class  is  then  formed,  and 
the  words  are  given  out  to  each  pupil,  commencing 
at  the  head  of  the  class  and  proceeding  toward  the 
foot.  If  a  pupil  misspell  his  word,  the  next  below 
him  may  spell  it  and  take  his  place ;  if  two  misspell 
a  word,  a  third  may  try  it,  and  so  on  to  the  end,  un 
less  some  one  spell  it  correctly. 

It  may  be  objected  to  this  method  that,  by  collu 
sion  among  one  another,  each  pupil  knowing  the 
order  in  which  the  words  will  be  given  out,  may 
prepare  only  those  words  which  he  calculates  will 
be  assigned  to  him.  This  objection,  however,  can 
be  easily  obviated  by  the  teacher's  changing  the 
order  of  assigning  the  words. 

It  is  also  objected  to  this  method  that,  while 
pupils  are  spelling  at  one  end  of  the  class,  they  may 
be  inattentive  at  the  other  end.  Thi«  result  does 
not  occur  unfrequently,  but  it  may  be  prevented 
by  the  teacher's  assigning  words  miscellaneously. 
If  it  be  desirable  to  retain  positions  of  honor  and 
dishonor  in  the  class,  at  the  end  of  a  recitation, 
those  who  have  misspelled  the  fewest  words  can 
pass  to  the  head  of  the  class ;  those  who  bave  mis- 


202  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

spelled  the  next  to  the  fewest  words  can  occupy  the 
next  place,  and  thus  on  until  all  are  located,  such 
as  misspelled  the  same  number  of  words  retaining 
the  same  relative  position  as  when  the  recitation 
began.  This  changing  of  position  need  occupy  but 
a  moment,  and  necessitates  no  confusion.  Each 
pupil  can  be  readily  accustomed  to  recollect  the 
number  of  words  he  misspelled,  and  honestly  to 
report  it,  or  some  one  can  be  appointed  to  keep  the 
account. 

A  more  serious  objection  to  tl.e  method  of  oral 
spelling  is  that  by  this  mode  of  reciting  each  pupil 
can  receive  but  a  small  portion  of  the  words  of  the 
lesson,  and  the  teacher  does  not  know  whether  the 
whole  lesson  has  been  prepared  or  otherwise.  In 
other  studies  the  teacher  may  nearly  always  judge 
how  well  a  pupil  knows  the  whole  lesson  by  the 
manner  in  which  he  recites  a  part  of  it,  but  this  is 
obviously  not  the  case  with  Orthography.  Though 
this  is  a  strong  objection  to  oral  spelling,  yet  the 
practice  of  it  ought  not  to  be  wholly  discarded.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  pupils  cannot  write,  and 
sometimes  it  is  inconvenient  for  them  to  do  so ; 
and  if  neither  wTas  the  case,  variety  of  method  in 
reciting  gives  zest  to  study.  Now  and  then,  indeed, 
I  do  not  think  it  out  of  place  for  the  teacher  to 
indulge  his  pupils  in  an  old-fashioned  spelling- 
match.  The  interest  they  will  take  in  preparing  for 
the  contest  will  acquaint  them  with  the  Orthography 
of  many  words. 

3d.  Method  of  using  Slates  in  a  Spelling  Recitation. — 
Those  who  spell  well  orally  do  not  a1  ways  write  words 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  203 

correctly.  Every  teacher  has  witnessed  and  won 
dered  at  this  fact.  It  may  be  that,  in  oral  spelling, 
we  rely  more  upon  the  sense  of  hearing  than  upon 
that  of  seeing,  and  that  in  written  spelling  the 
reverse  is  true.  Whatever  may  he  the  cause,  the 
fact  is  as  stated,  and  hence  the  necessity  that  pupils 
should  have  ample  practice  in  spelling  words  by 
writing  them.  This  exercise  may  be  conducted  by 
using  slates.  The  pupils  having  made  the  necessary 
preparation  by  looking  closely  at  the  words  of  the  les 
son,  writing  them,  and  naming  the  letters  composing 
them,  are  supposed  to  be  conveniently  seated,  each 
with  a  slate  and  pencil.  The  teacher  now  pronounces 
the  words  of  the  lesson,  or  such  of  them  as  he  may 
select,  and  all  the  pupils  write  them.  When  the 
words  have  all  been  written,  the  teacher  must  ascer 
tain  how  many  of  them  have  been  spelled  correctly. 
For  this  purpose,  I  have  found  the  best  plan  to  be 
for  the  teacher  to  spell  the  words  in  the  order  he 
gave  them  out,  and  require  each  pupil  to  mark  such 
of  them  as  he  may  have  misspelled.  Pupils  may, 
however,  spell  the  words  by  turns,  or  as  called  upon, 
and  correct  one  another,  marking  misspelled  words 
as  before.  How  to  dispose  of  the  misspelled  words 
is  an  interesting  question.  It  would  be  a  great  mis 
take  merely  to  have  them  marked,  and  then  allow 
them  to  pass  without  further  notice.  It  is  an  excel- 
lect  plan  to  require  each  pupil  to  write  upon  paper 
lists  of  all  the  words  he  misspelled,  and  then  to 
make  special  preparation  to  spell  them  at  certain 
fixed  times,  once  a  week,  or  more  frequently,  in  a 
review  lesson.  At  such  a  recitation,  all  the  lists 
nridt  be  handed  to  the  teacher,  and  he  can  assign 


204  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

the  words  in  the  usual  manner;  and  as  each  pupil 
has  only  the  words  misspelled  by  himself  to  pre 
pare,  it  can  justly  be  expected  that  no  mistakes 
will  be  made. 

In  addition  to  the  attainment  of  the  ability  to 
write  words  correctly,  some  of  the  advantages  of 
this  method  are  that  each  pupil  has  the  opportunity 
of  spelling  all  the  worJs  of  the  lesson,  all  the  mem 
bers  of  the  class  are  constantly  employed  during  the 
recitation,  no  one  who  does  not  know  his  lesson  can 
escape  detection,  and  misspelled  words  can  be  re- 
studied  and  recited  a  second  time. 

4th.  Method  of  using  the  Blackboard  in  a  Spelling 
Recitation. — In  order  to  conduct  a  spelling  recitation 
upon  a  blackboard,  there  must  be  sufficient  surface 
to  allow  to  each  pupil  the  requisite  amount  of  space 
upon  which  to  write  his  lesson.  "When  ready  to 
recite,  each  pupil  takes  his  place  in  front  of  the  space 
upon  which  his  lesson  is  intended  to  be  written; 
and  with  a  piece  of  crayon  in  one  hand  and  a  suita 
ble  rubber  in  the  other,  prepares  himself  to  write. 
The  lesson  is  then  given  out,  written,  corrected,  and 
reviewed,  as  when  slates  are  used.  Instead  of  each 
pupil's  correcting  his  own  work,  all  may  change 
places,  and  each  correct  the  work  of  another.  Slates 
can  be  exchanged  in  the  same  manner ;  but  in  both 
cases,  there  is  always  some  loss  of  time,  and  there 
may  be  ill  feeling. 

I  prefer  slates  to  the  blackboard  in  conducting  a 
spelling  lesson,  for  the  reason  that  while  the  general 
advantages  are  the  same,  pupils  cannot  so  readily 
copy  from  a  blackboard  their  misspelled  wordo  after 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  205 

the  recitation,  and  during  the  recitation  there  is  a 
strong  temptation  to  watch  each  other's  \vork  and 
profit  by  it.  This  latter  objection  can  be  partially 
removed  by  dividing  the  whole  class  into  two  sub 
classes,  placing  the  members  of  each  alternately, 
and  giving  out  the  words  of  the  lesson  to  each  sub 
class  in  a  different  order ;  but  this  arrangement  is 
itself  not  free  from  objections. 

5th.  False  Orthography  as  an  Exercise  in  Spelling. — 
Proof-readers  become  very  expert  spellers.  They 
detect  instantly  by  its  look  every  misspelled  word. 
An  exercise  something  like  proof-reading  might  be 
profitably  introduced  into  our  schools.  Pupils  could 
be  made  to  notice  carefully  the  correct  spelling  of 
certain  collections  of  words,  and  afterwards  these 
words  might  be  embraced  in  miscellaneous  exercises 
systematically  misspelled.  Reading  lessons  might 
be  followed  by  exercises  in  False  Orthography,  or 
misspelled  words  might  be  introduced  into  sen 
tences  and  the  pupils  be  engaged  in  correcting  them. 
Examples  of  False  Orthography  might  be  placed 
under  each  of  the  Orthographical  rules,  and  pupils 
could  thus  become  familiar  with  the  rules  in  apply 
ing  them.  A  book  containing  matter  suitably 
arranged  can  easily  be  conceived.  In  preparing 
such  lessons,  pupils  ought  to  have  loose  slips  of 
paper  upon  which  they  could  make  their  corrections 
for  the  teacher's  inspection. 

6th.  Dictation  Exercises. — All  exercises  that  require 
pupils  to  write  words  when  given  out  by  the  teacher 
may  be  called  Dictation  Exercises;  but  by  such 

18 


206  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

exercises  in  this  connection  are  meant  sentences, 
paragraphs,  or  short  pieces  of  composition  read  by 
the  teacher  and  written  by  the  pupils.  The  mean 
ing  of  words  contained  in  sentences  is  more  readily 
discerned  than  when  they  are  arranged  in  col 
umns,  and  consequently  children  take  more  inter 
est  in  spelling  them.  Besides,  the  spelling  of  sen 
tences  seems  to  them  to  be  working  to  more  pur 
pose  than  spelling  the  words  of  dry  spelling-book 
columns. 

Dictation  exercises  should  be  first  written  upon 
slates,  but  when  they  have  been  corrected  they  may 
be  transferred  to  paper.  The  manner  of  correcting 
the  exercises  may  be  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary 
spelling  upon  slates.  With  advanced  classes,  the 
teacher  will  do  well  to  make  such  selections  for 
dictation  as  are  worth  preserving  on  account  of 
their  literary  merit ;  and  something  may  be  done  in 
this  way  to  cultivate  the  taste  even  of  beginners. 

It  is  considered  proper  to  append  a  few  additional 
suggestions.  They  have  a  general  application. 

Some  attention  should  be  paid  to  Orthography  in 
all  branches.  It  is  not  amiss  to  ask  pupils  to  spell 
the  new  words  with  which  they  meet  in  Arithmetic, 
Geography,  Grammar,  or  any  higher  study.  Espe 
cially  is  it  proper -that  pupils  be  required  to  spell 
the  new  words  which  occur  in  their  reading  lessons. 
I  have  noticed  pupils  increase  their  skill  in  spelling 
English  words  by  practice  in  spelling  the  words  of 
other  languages. 

A  wonderful  degree  of  interest  can  be  created 
among  children  by  giving  them  lessons  in  which 
they  are  required  to  spell  common  things,  such  as 


207 

the  things  about  the  school-room,  articles  of  furni 
ture,  articles  of  wearing  apparel,  kinds  of  food, 
things  bought  at  stores,  things  taken  to  market, 
names  of  trees,  flowers,  vessels,  vehicles,  men, 
women,  &c.,  &c. 

Li  giving  out  a  spelling  lesson  or  dictation  exer 
cise,  the  teacher  should  always  pronounce  the  words 
correctly,  and  in  a  clear,  audible  voice. 

The  teacher  should  never  mispronounce  a  word  in 
order  to  aid  the  pupil  in  spelling  it. 

A  word  or  sentence  should  be  repeated  but  once, 
and  in  oral  spelling  but  one  trial  should  be  allowed 
the  pupil.  In  written  spelling,  since  the  pupil 
cannot  know  immediately  whether  his  work  is  cor 
rect  or  not,  he  will  not  often  desire  to  change  what 
he  first  writes. 

It  is  well  for  pupils  to  pronounce  the  words  in 
oral  spelling  after  the  teacher  has  done  so,  and 
before  spelling  them ;  and  also  to  give  the  pronun 
ciation  of  each  syllable  as  spelled  by  itself,  and  in 
combination  with  the  preceding  syllable  or  syllables, 
if  there  are  such. 

What  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  methods  of 
teaching  Orthography  has  reference  only  to  ac 
quiring  skill  in  spelling  words  as  authorized  by 
good  authorities.  There  are  Etymological  and  other 
reasons  why  words  are  spelled  as  we  see  them. 
Orthographical  peculiarities  have  not  been  produced 
by  mere  chance  or  caprice.  They  are  often  the 
result  of  linguistic  laws,  which  can  be  investigated. 
When  pupils  have  made  that  degree  of  advancement 
necessary  to  prosecute  these  philosophical  inquiries, 


208  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE, 

teachers  will  find  any  effort  they  may  make  to 
encourage  them  amply  repaid.  In  no  department 
of  science  can  there  he  opened  a  richer  field  than 
that  which  embraces  the  origin,  nature,  and  changes 
of  written  language.  While  we  are  careful  to  inves 
tigate  the  Orthographic  laws  relating  to  foreign  lan 
guages,  let  us  not  forget  what  is  due  from  us  to  our 
Mother-Tongue. 

READING. 

Reading,  as  a  "branch  of  instruction,  is  the  art  of 
giving  proper  oral  expression  to  written  or  printed 
composition.  Taken  in  this  sense,  the  words  Read 
ing  and  Elocution  are  synonymous,  although  the 
latter  term  is  generally  applied  to  the  higher  depart 
ments  of  Reading.  Skill  in  Reading  maybe  desired 
for  the  purpose  of  understanding  written  or  printed 
language,  and  without  any  intention  of  reading  for 
the  "benefit  of  others  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  a  teacher 
can  only  judge  of  such  skill  by  an  oral  exhibition 
of  it.  What  is  said  of  Reading  in  the  following  dis 
cussion  will  apply  almost  equally  well  to  Declama 
tion  and  the  different  forms  of  Public  Speaking. 

Methods  of  teaching  Reading  are  readily  divis 
ible  into  three  classes :  first,  those  which  relate  to 
Heading  as  a  Vocal  Art;  second,  those  which  relate 
to  Reading  as  a  Mental  Operation;  third,  those  which 
relate  to  Delivery. 

1.  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  READING  AS  A  VOCAL  ART. 
—  In  reading  we  use  the  vocal  organs  as  instru 
ments;  and,  if  these  instruments  are  defective,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  acquire  the  ability  to  read 


READING.  209 

well.  As  well  might  it  be  expected  that  a  musiciar 
could  make  good  music  upon  an  instrument  broken 
or  out  of  tune,  as  to  expect  a  person  to  read  well 
with  an  uncultivated  voice.  Good  reading  depends 
as  much  upon  the  voice  as  good  singing ;  and  yet 
the  systematic  culture  of  the  voice  for  purposes  of 
reading  is  little  attended  to  in  educational  institu 
tions,  and  that  is  one  great  cause  why  there  are  so 
few  good  readers.  The  human  voice  is  a  wonderful 
instrument,  and  greatly  susceptible  of  culture.  No 
one  can  doubt  who  has  heard  a  great  vocalist  sing, 
or  seen  a  great  actor  play,  that  much  of  our  singing, 
speaking,  and  reading  might  be  better  done.  The 
Creator  evidently  intended  that  the  voice  should 
express  all  kinds  of  truth  and  all  forms  of  sentiment 
that  can  originate  in  the  soul. 

Yocal  culture  in  reading  may  either  relate  to  the 
simple  utterance  of  linguistic  sounds,  as  they  occur 
in  words ;  or  to  the  utterance  of  such  sounds  with 
respect  to  their  Elocutionary  qualities.  The  first 
division  has  already  been  called  Pronunciation  ;  the 
second  may  be  called  Modulation. 

As  methods  of  teaching  Pronunciation  were 
treated  of  in  a  preceding  Article,  it  seems  only 
necessary  to  say  here  that  no  one  can  read  well  who 
is  unable  to  pronounce  correctly  and  fluently.  Ex 
ercises  upon  the  Enunciation  of  sounds  and  the 
Pronunciation  of  words  may,  therefore,  appropri 
ately  introduce  a  lesson  in  .Reading.  These  exer 
cises  should  be  based  upon  the  reading-lessen,  and 
adapted  in  kind  and  extent  to  the  acquirements  of 
the  class.  Pupils  just  beginning  to  read  should  be 
taught  to  pronounce  the  words  of  the  lesson  before 

18* 


210  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

reading  it,  either  as  arranged  in  sentences  (in  which 
case  they  should  he  named  in  a  reversed  order  from 
that  in  which  they  are  read),  or  as  arranged  in 
columns.  Some  of  the  worst  habits  of  bad  reading 
irise  from  permitting  children  to  attempt  to  read  a 
lesson  before  they  can  pronounce  the'  words  con 
tained  in  it.  Even  those  counted  good  readers 
sometimes  spoil  the  delivery  of  a  sentence  by  a 
failure  to  articulate  correctly  a  sound  or  a  combina 
tion  of  sounds,  or  by  the  inability  to  pronounce 
readily  a  word  or  a  succession  of  words. 

Modulation,  in  the  sense  here  used,  includes  the 
Quantity,  Compass,  Movement,  and  Quality  of  the 
voice. 

Quantity. — By  Quantity,  in  an  Elocutionary  sense, 
is  meant  the  volume  of  voice  that  can  be  used — the 
power  with  which  sounds  can  be  uttered.  Force, 
Emphasis,  Slur,  Stress,  and  Accent  all  relate  to 
Quantity  of  voice.  Force  is  the  volume  of  voice 
applied  in  reading.  Emphasis  is  the  manner  of 
applying  more  Force  to  certain  words  in  a  sen 
tence,  or  sentences  in  a  paragraph,  than  to  others 
with  which  they  are  connected.  Less  Force,  thus 
applied,  produces  the  Slur.  Stress  is  the  manner 
of  applying  Force  in  uttering  single  sounds,  sylla 
bles,  or  monosyllabic  words.  Accent  is  the  greater 
Force  with  which  certain  syllables  in  pollysyllabic 
words  are  uttered  than  others  in  the  same  words. 

Quantity  of  voice  depends  upon  the  power  of  the 
lungs,  and  a  good  reader  must  be  able  to  contrcl 
this  power  so  a&  to  utter  loud  or  soft  sounds  at  plea 
sure.  A  feeble  voice  may  arise  from  general  ill- 


READING.  211 

health,  or  from  weak  lungs,  or  from  a  want  of 
exercise  of  the  pulmonary  organs.  It  is  the  teacher's 
special  duty  to  supply  the  want  of  exercise  to  these 
organs  ;  hut  as  the  general  culture  of  the  voice  can 
only  he  attained  by  particular  applications  of  vocal 
power,  the  methods  of  doing  so  will  be  detailed  in 
speaking  of  Force. 

Some  sentiments  require  to  be  given  with  a  low, 
soft  voice  ;  and  others  with  a  voice  loud  and  strong. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  vocal  training  in  respect  to 
Force.  A  reader  should  always  make  himself  dis 
tinctly  heard  by  those  who  listen  to  him ;  but  weak 
voices,  bad  habits,  timidity,  and  affectation  stand  in 
the  way  of  securing  this  end  in  our  schools.  Not 
unfrequently,  classes  composed  of  girls  read  in  a 
tone  so  soft  as  scarcely  to  be  audible.  It  is  not  un 
common  at  Young  Ladies'  Seminaries  for  the  pupils 
to  undertake  to  entertain  an  audience  by  reading 
compositions  of  which  scarcely  a  word  can  be  heard  ; 
and  the  listeners  are  compelled  to  be  content,  if 
they  can  notice  a  slight  motion  of  the  reader's  lips, 
and,  now  and  then,  a  change  of  position.  Strength 
can  be  given  to  the  voice  by  judicious  breathing 
exercises,  and  by  oft-repeated  lessons  in  uttering 
letters,  letter-sounds,  syllables,  words,  and  sentences, 
with  different  degrees  of  loudness.  The  teacher 
should  illustrate  these  lessons,  by  first  making  the 
sounds  himself,  and  afterwards  aid  his  pupils  by 
accompanying  them  with  his  voice  in  their  efforts 
to  imitate  him.  I  have  succeeded  best  in  this  kind 
of  training  by  using  sentences  selected  in  reference 
to  the  degree  of  Force  in  utterance  required  by  the 
Bentiment.  It  is  an  easy  matter  for  a  teacher  to 


212  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

collect  a  great  variety  of  such  sentences.  It  is  an 
advantage  to  place  reading  classes  at  some  distance 
from  the  teacher,  and  to  classify  the  voices  of  those 
who  read  in  the  same  class  and  hear  them  in  sec 
tions.  Special  care  must  be  taken  with  those  whose 
voices  are  naturally  weak,  and  kind  encouragement 
must  inspire  the  timid  with  contidence.  It  is  an  easy 
matter  to  train  children  to  read  with  sufficient  Force. 
Nothing  will  please  them  better  than  exercises  in 
"loud  reading."  It  is  not  so  easy  to  succeed  with 
older  pupils,  hut  the  methods  proposed  will  he  found 
•the  most  effectual.  Loud  reading,  must  not  he 
suffered  to  become  a  habit  or  the  voice  will  be 
rendered  incapable  of  uttering  sounds  with  that 
variety  of  Force  which  the  expression  of  different 
kinds  of  sentiment  requires. 

The  masters  of  English  speaking  and  English 
reading  make  very  great  use  of  Emphasis.  In  no 
other  language,  probably,  is  its  use  so  common  or 
so  effective.  Without  it,  not  only  would  the  sense 
of  discourse  be  frequently  ambiguous,  but  reading 
would  be  extremely  monotonous.  No  better  test 
of  good  reading  can  be  found  than  a  skilful  use  of 
Emphasis.  Teachers  should,  therefore,  train  the 
vocal  organs  of  their  pupils  so  that  they  could  apply 
Emphasis  whenever  and  in  whatever  degree  the 
sense  requires  it.  Drill  exercises  in  Emphasis  might 
consist  in  uttering  the  sound  of  some  letter  or  word 
a  number  of  times  with  the  same  degree  of  Force ; 
and,  at  certain  intervals,  or  at  a  given  signal,  in 
creasing  the  Force.  In  pronouncing  a  series  of  let 
ters,  figures,  or  words,  some  of  them  might  be  desig 
nated  to  receive  Emphasis.  Practice  may  be  bad 


BEADING.  213 

with  sentences  in  which  the  emphatic  words  are 
indicated  to  the  eye.  These  may  be  either  selected 
from  a  book,  or  written  on  the  blackboard.  It  is 
in  favor  of  such  training  that,  while  pupils  are 
receiving  this  kind  of  vocal  culture,  they  can,  at  the 
same  time,  learn  the  use  of  Emphasis,  and  the  dif 
ferent  methods  of  giving  it.  The  Slur,  in  ail  Elo 
cutionary  sense,  is  directly  opposed  to  Emphasis. 
If  some  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences  are  uttered 
with  much  Force,  it  necessitates  the  utterance  of 
others  with  little  Force.  When  a  sentence  or  a 
part  of  a  sentence  is  read  more  rapidly  and  less  for 
cibly  than  others,  it  is  said  to  be  slurred.  Examples 
of  the  Slur  may  be  shown  by  reading  parenthetical 
clauses,  or  side  remarks  in  dialogues.  The  drill  exer 
cises  are  necessarily  similar  to  those  for  Emphasis. 

Emphasis  and  Slur  have  reference  to  the  com 
parative  Force  with  which  sentences  and  parts  of 
sentences  are  uttered ;  but  if  close  observation  be 
made,  it  will  be  found  that  the  Force  used  in  the 
utterance  of  single  sounds  is  not  equally  distributed 
throughout  the  vocal  movement.  This  modifica 
tion  of  Force  is  called  Stress.  All  the  different 
Jdnds  of  Stress  may  be  applied  in  the  utterance  of 
any  simple  sound  or  single  syllable;  but  I  have 
succeeded  best  in  training  the  voices  of  pupils  to 
utter  sounds,  with  regard  to  Stress,  by  requiring 
them  to  imitate  the  pronunciation  of  w^ords  in 
which  these  different  kinds  of  Stress  are  exempli 
fied.  Such  words  as  ring  and  ears,  might  serve  for 
Radical  Stress;  bell  and  loiv,  for  Vanishing  Stress; 
xtrike  and  sad  for  Median  Stress;  and  so  of  the 
other  kinds. 


£14  INSTRUCTION    IN.  LANGUAGE. 

Of  Accent  something  was  said  in  another  con 
nection,  and  it  need  only  be  added  here  that  the 
best  training  exercises  are  those  in  which  pupils 
imitate  the  teacher  as  he  changes  the  Accent  in 
pronouncing  words,  or  follow  him  when  he  desig 
nates  where  the  Accent  should  be  placed.  It 
increases  interest  when  words  are  selected  in  respect 
to  which  a  change  of  Accent  brings  about  a  change 
of  meaning. 

Compass.  —  In  speaking  or  singing,  the  human 
voice  moves  between  certain  limits,  above  or  below 
which  it  cannot  utter  sounds.  The  space  included 
between  these  limits  is  called  the  Compass  of  the 
voice.  The  Compass  of  the  voice  is  a  limitation  in 
extent  of  height  or  lowness,  while  the  Quantity  of 
the  voice  is  a  limitation  in  degree  of  power.  The 
Compass  of  the  voice  may  be  marked  by  a  regular 
series  of  gradations  of  sounds.  Such  a  series  is 
called  a  Scale,  and  the  general  name  for  its  different 
degrees  is  Pitch.  In  other  words,  Pitch  in  reading 
denotes  the  point  of  elevation  or  depression  of  the 
voice.  These  points  are  called  notes  in  Music. 
They  are  placed  at  considerable  intervals,  and  the 
voice  generally  passes  between  them  by  leaps ; 
while  in  Reading  the  intervals  are  mostly  crossed 
by  sliding  the  voice  from  one  note  to  another. 
This  sliding  the  voice  from  one  degree  of  Pitch  to 
another  is  Inflection,  and  it  seems  proper  to  consider 
it  in  connection  with  Pitch. 

There  may  obviously  be  as  many  degrees  of 
Pitch  in  Reading  as  there  are  notes  in  Music,  but 
Elocutionists  have  not  deemed  it  necessary  to  die- 


READING.  215 

tinguish  all  of  them.  For  all  practical  purposes  iive 
degrees  of  Pitch  are  sufficient,  viz.:  Very  Low, 
Low,  Middle,  High,  and  Very  High.  The  teacher 
will  not  find  it  a  very  difficult  thing  to  train  chil 
dren  to  pitch  their  voices  upon  any  key  within  their 
Compass.  For  this  purpose  he  may  select  vowel 
sounds  as  a,  o;  syllables  as  do,  ra;  words  as  on,  one, 
book;  or  suitable  sentences.  In  exercises  like  these 
the  teacher  must  first  utter  the  sounds,  that  the 
pupils  may  imitate  him  as  he  passes  from  one 
degree  of  Pitch  to  another ;  but  in  the  end  the 
pupils  must  be  able  to  give  sounds  or  read  sentences 
with  any  degree  of  Pitch  required  without  such  aid. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  arrange  a  list  of  sentences 
which  would  be  good  examples  for  the  kind  of  prac 
tice  here  insisted  upon.  The  list  should  not  only 
contain  sentences  the  sense  of  which  would  require 
them  to  be  read  with  different  degrees  of  Pitch ; 
but  some  in  which  a  change  of  Pitch  is  required  in 
reading  the  same  sentence. 

Skill  in  reading  depends  greatly  upon  ability  to 
manage  the  Inflections  of  the  voice,  and  nothing 
but  careful  training  can  impart  it.  As  in  Pitch,  the 
teacher  may  use  for  his  training  exercises  the  ele 
mentary  vocal  sounds,  letters,  figures,  words,  the 
syllables  of  the  Diatonic  Scale,  or  sentences  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  An  interesting  mode  of  recitation 
consists  in  arranging  a  series  of  sounds,  letters, 
figures,  or  words,  in  the  form  of  questions  and  an 
swers,  and  allowing  one  portion  of  the  class  to  put 
the  questions,  and  the  other  to  give  the  answers. 
The  different  kinds  of  Inflection  are  best  illustrated 
by  means  of  sentences  ;  and  these,  too,  furnish  the 


S5i6  INSTRUCTION"   IN    LANGUAGE. 

most  effective  drill.  Some  Elocutionists  have  ar 
ranged  bars,  like  those  used  in  Music,  and  placed 
upon  them  certain  marks  indicating  to  the  eye  the 
upward  and  downward  slides  of  the  voice.  By 
taking  a  simple  sound  or  syllable,  practice  can  be 
had  in  inflecting  the  voice  as  readily  as  in  running 
up  and  down  the  Diatonic  Scale. 

Movement. — By  the  Movement  of  the  voice  is 
meant  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  sounds  can 
be  uttered.  It  is  a  limitation  in  time.  The  degree 
of  rapidity  with  which  sounds  are  uttered  in  read 
ing  is  called  Rate.  Closely  connected  with  the 
Movement  of  the  voice  is  Pause.  Pauses  in  reading 
are  suspensions  of  the  voice  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  rest  to  the  reader,  or  effect  to  the  reading. 

Words  or  syllables  should  not  be  uttered  in  that 
stated  measure  which  is  heard  in  Music ;  but  it  is 
very  evident  that  solemn  discourse  requires  a  Slow 
Rate ;  simple  narrative,  a  Moderate  Rate ;  gay,  glad 
description,  a  Brisk  Rate;  and  wild  passion,  a  Rapid 
Rate  ;  and  it  would  be  very  much  amiss  to  overlook 
these  facts  in  reading.  The  voice,  then,  should  be 
so  trained  as  to  be  able  to  utter  sounds  rapidly  or 
slowly  at  pleasure.  Like  a  good  musician,  it  should 
be  able  to  keep  time  whether  it  be  quick  or  slow. 
For  the  purpose  of  training  his  pupils  to  keep  time 
in  reading,  the  teacher  will  find  the  drill  exercises 
used  in  Vocal  Music  to  effect  the  same  end,  to  be 
very  valuable.  Pupils  can  be  made  to  give  the 
Elementary  Vocal  Sounds,  to  count,  to  name  the 
letters  of  the  Alphabet,  or  repeat  series  of  words  m 
quick  or  slow  time,  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 


READING.  217 

Numerous  sentences  can  be  selected  which  require 
to  be  read  with  the  different  degrees  of  Rate,  and 
should  be  made  the  subjects  of  frequent  lessons. 
With  a  class  in  which  some  pupils  read  too  fast  or 
too  slow,  it  is  well  occasionally  to  practice  reading 
in  concert.  If  the  teacher  observe  the  proper  rate 
in  leading  the  concert,  the  pupils  will  soon  accustom 
themselves  to  follow. 

Two  kinds  of  Pauses  are  to  be  noted  in  reading. 

o 

The  first  are  those  indicated  by  the  marks  of  Punc 
tuation  ;  the  second  are  those  required  by  the  sense 
but  not  indicated  by  the  marks  of  Punctuation. 
The  latter  are  called  Rhetorical  Pauses.  Both 
require  the  same  kind  of  vocal  training.  Pauses 
enable  the  reader  to  supply  himself  with  breath,  to 
rest  his  organs  of  speech,  to  make  Ins  delivery  more 
effective.  The  Pauses  which  are  indicated  by  the 
common  marks  of  Punctuation  must  not  be  disre 
garded  ;  but  all  rules  which  direct  pupils  to  pause 
long  enough  at  a  Comma  to  count  a  certain  number, 
a  certain  additional  number  at  a  Semicolon,  and 
twice  as  many,  perhaps,  at  a  Period,  are  wholly  arbi 
trary  and  serve  only  to  confuse  the  pupil.  Counting 
,  may  be  done  rapidly  or  slowly ;  and,  besides,  since 
the  place  and  length  of  the  Pauses  depend  altogether 
upon  the  sense,  a  longer  pause  may  be  required  at  a 
Comma  in  one  place,  than  at  a  Period  in  another. 
About  the  only  successful  mode  in  which  a  teacher 
can  train  his  pupils  to  make  proper  Pauses  in  read 
ing,  is  to  present  them  correct  models  for  imitation. 
lie  may  either  select  sentences  or  take  the  ordinary 
reading-lessons,  and  then  read  each  sentence  slowly 
and  with  due  regard  to  all  the  Pauses,  requiring  the 

19 


218  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

pupils  to  follow,  both  singly  and  in  concert,  until 
his  end  is  gained.  The  melody  of  verse  requires 
certain  Pauses  in  reading  not  used  in  prose.  To 
train  his  pupils  to  properly  regard  these  in  blank 
verse  as  well  as  in  that  which  is  rhymed,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  have  them  avoid  all  appearance  of 
sing-song  tone,  will  demand  great  care  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher. 

Quality. — The  Quality  of  the  voice  is  its  capability 
of  uttering  varied  sounds.  It  is  a  limitation  in  kind, 
and  includes  the  manner  of  uttering  all  varieties  of 
vocal  sounds.  The  particular  Qualities  of  the  voice 
applied  in  reading,  are  called  Tones.  The  Tones 
are  the  language  of  the  heart,  and  no  department 
of  Modulation  requires  more  delicate  management. 
It  is  by  means  of  Tones  in  great  part  that  Reading 
and  Speaking  are  made  lively  and  interesting.  The 
sense  of  discourse  can  be  conveyed  by  words,  but 
the  feelings  of  an  author  can  only  be  expressed  in 
the  natural  language  of  Tones.  A  reader  or  speaker 
who  would  interest  an  audience  must  not  utter 
words  coldly  like  a  talking  machine,  but  his  manner 
of  utterance  must  indicate  his  personal  sentiments. 
His  individuality  must  appear  in  what  he  says,  and 
this  is  impossible  without  the  use  of  Tones.  There 
is  a  very  great  number  of  different  Tones  used  in 
reading,  many  of  which  can  only  be  appreciated  by 
the  ear,  and  cannot  be  expressed  in  words.  Elocu 
tionists,  however,  have  formed  the  following  genera) 
classes,  viz.:  Pure,  Orotund,  Aspirated,  Guttural^ 
and  Tremulous.  Pure  Tone  is  clear  and  smooth, 
Orotund,  deep,  energetic,  dignified ;  Aspirated, 
whispered;  Guttural,  harsh,  growling,  throat 


READING.  219 

formed;  Tremulous,  irregular,  plaintive.  Ability 
to  use  any  one  of  these  Tones  at  pleasure,  or  to 
change  readily  from  one  to  another  is  to  some  a  gift 
of  nature ;  but  there  are  few,  whatever  faults  of 
Tone  they  may  have  either  natural  or  acquired, 
whose  voices  do  not  admit  of  great  improvement  by 
judicious  culture.  Since  the  vocal  organs  are  more 
flexible  in  youth,  than  when  older,  teachers  who 
commence  a  course  of  training  with  their  pupils,  at 
an  early  age,  will  find  their  efforts  productive  of 
most  fruit.  Indeed,  almost  all  that  is  then  required 
is  to  preserve  their  natural  purity  and  sweetness  of 
Tone.  No  teacher  who  cannot  himself  utter  sounds 
in  the  different  Tones  must  expect  his  pupils  to 
learn  to  do  so.  Children  are  generally  apt  imitators 
of  sounds  ;  but  they  cannot  imitate  what  they  do  not 
hear.  If  a  teacher  be  able  to  use  correctly  the  dif 
ferent  Tones  in  reading,  he  can  readily  find  means 
of  imparting  the  same  power  to  his  pupils.  Any 
sound,  syllable,  or  word  can  be  uttered  in  various 
Tones.  It  is  said  that  certain  Elocutionists  could 
make  an  audience  laugh  or  weep,  awaken  their  pity 
or  their  indignation,  by  the  mere  recitation  of  the 
letters  of  the  Alphabet.  In  addition  to  this,  every 
teacher  of  Reading  should  collect  numerous  proso 
sentences  and  stanzas  of  poetry,  requiring  a  variety 
of  Tones  in  the  reading,  and  adapted  to  the  capaci 
ties  of  the  pupils,  and  use  them  for  purposes  of  drill. 
Both  teacher  and  pupils  should  have  them  com 
mitted  to  memory.  The  teacher  should  first  utter 
the  sentence  in  +he  required  Tone;  and  then  pa 
tiently  aid  the  p  jpils  in  doing  so.  Much  effort  will 
be  required  to  remove  faults  of  Tone  which  hav^e 


220  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

become  habitual.  Examples  of  Pure  Tone  should 
first  be  practiced  upon  ;  and,  afterward,  examples 
of  the  other  Tones.  The  exercises  must  be  con 
tinued,  until  the  pupils  shall  have  acquired  the 
power  of  uttering  sounds  in  any  Tone  when  so 
directed. 

2.  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  READING  AS  A  MENTAL 
OPERATION.  —  Skill  in  reading  does  not  depend 
wholly,  or,  perhaps,  mainly,  upon  vocal  culture.  It 
matters  not  how  well  the  voice  is  trained,  unless 
there  are  intellects  to  think  and  hearts  to  feel,  there 
can  be  no  good  reading.  The  best  instrument  will 
make  poor  music,  if  the  performer  be  unskilful.  If 
ability  to  make  and  vary  sounds  constitute  all  the 
requirements  of  good  reading,  a  machine  might 
possibly  be  made  to  read. 

As  a  mental  operation,  Reading  may  either  relate 
to  the  intellectual  part  of  the  mind  or  to  the  emo 
tive  part  of  it.  Our  discussion  must,  therefore, 
embrace  :  1st,  Reading  as  related  to  the  Intellect ;  and, 
2d,  Reading  as  related  to  the  Emotions. 

1st.  Reading  as  related  to  the  Intellect. — "No  one  can 
read  well  what  he  does  not  understand.  Great 
powers  of  imitation  and  a  well-cultivated  voice 
would  be  quite  as  likely  to  make  worse  his  reading 
who  attempted  to  read  what  he  did  not  understand, 
as  to  make  it  better.  A  parrot  could  never  be 
taught  to  read.  School  boys  make  sad  work  read 
ing  Latin,  until  they  come  to  appreciate  the  mean 
ing  of  the  words  they  use  and  the  sentiments  they 
utter.  A  person  can  read  that  which  he  has  written 


READING.  221 

himself  better  than  that  which  others  have  written, 
because  he  more  fully  comprehends  it.  No  one  can 
read  a  passage  well  who  is  not  able  to  place  him 
self  in  the  position  of  its  author,  enter  into  his 
spirit,  see  as  he  saw,  and  understand  as  he  under 
stood. 

In  view  of  the  fact  above  stated,  a  teacher  should 
never  assign  a  reading-lesson  to  his  pupils  that  they 
are  not  able  to  comprehend.  Sufficient  attention  is 
not  paid  to  this  principle  with  any  class  of  pupils; 
but  no  where  is  it  so  palpably  violated  as  in  the  case 
of  children  just  learning  to  read.  Reading-books 
are  frequently  placed  in  their  hands  which  contain 
matter  entirely  beyond  their  comprehension.  In 
the  great  majority  of  our  schools,  the  pupils  are 
using  reading-books  which  are  too  difficult  for  them. 
Many  teachers,  from  a  desire  to  gratify  patrons,  a 
misdirected  ambition,  or  a  false  standard  of  excel 
lence,  advance  their  pupils  into  the  higher  numbers 
of  their  series  of  reading-books  at  much  too  early  an 
age.  The  consequence  is  not  only  that  they  learn 
little  in  reading  that  is  of  value,  but  they  acquire 
bad  habits  which  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  correct. 
Reading-books  for  beginners  should  contain  little 
else  than  simple  narrations  and  lively  conversations 
concerning  objects  in  which  they  feel  an  interest. 
Starting  here,  such  books  might  so  increase  their 
range  of  subjects  and  so  add  to  the  variety  of  their 
style,  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  pupils  of  any 
age  or  degree  of  acquirement  in  learning.  At  pre 
sent,  however,  it  must  be  confessed  that  reading- 
books  are  not  so  much  in  fault  as  reading-teachers. 

Teachers  should  make  careful  inquiry  concerning 
19* 


222  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

their  pupils'  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
reading- lesson.  Pupils  should  be  accustomed  to 
study  the  lesson  with  this  prospect,  and  the  inqui 
ries  should,  in  general,  be  made  before  they  are  per 
mitted  to  read.  Teachers  must  be  careful  in  the 
reading,  as  in  other  lessons,  to  adapt  their  questions 
to  the  capacities  of  the  pupils  to  whom  they  are 
addressed.  The  matter  of  reading-lessons  is  so 
varied  that  it  is  difficult  to  designate  in  detail  the 
questions  that  may  be  asked  concerning  it.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said,  that  they  should  be  such  as 
to  call  forth  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  subject 
presented  in  the  lesson,  and  to  extend,  consolidate, 
and  impress  that  knowledge.  Pupils  may  be 
required  to  give  the  sense  of  the  selection  or  pas 
sage  to  be  read  in  their  own  language,  and  those  who 
have  minds  sufficiently  mature,  may  show  the  rela 
tion  of  the  sentences  in  a  paragraph  to  one  another, 
and  the  relation  of  each  paragraph  to  the  whole 
composition.  Questions  addressed  to  young  learners 
must  be  calculated  to  give  exercise  to  their  percep 
tive  powers  and  their  memories ;  but  those  asked 
of  advanced  pupils  should  call  into  requisition  the 
faculties  of  judgment,  reason,  and  imagination. 
Incidentally,  in  reading-lessons,  allusions  are  often 
made  to  distinguished  persons,  to  noted  places,  to 
the  principles  of  science,  to  works  of  art,  to  certain 
books,  to  the  customs  of  antiquity,  to  human 
duties,  and  to  many  other  things  that  cannot  be 
here  enumerated;  and  as  these  give  life  and  beauty 
to  discourse,  as  well  as  reveal  the  under-currents  of 
the  author's  thought,  no  teacher  can  fully  discharge 
his  trust  who  does  not  make  them  the  subject  of 


READING.  223 

study  and  explanation.  It  thus  appears  that,  while 
all  reading-books  should  be  arranged  primarily  with 
reference  to  Elocutionary  ends,  they  may  be  made 
the  means  of  imparting  very  important  information, 
and  inducing  highly  beneficial  culture. 

It  is  the  duty  of  a  teacher  of  reading  to  see  that 
his  class  fully  understand  the  language  of  the  author 
read,  and  appreciate  his  style.  For  this  purpose, 
he  must  call  their  attention  to  the  definition  of  the 
words,  the  form  and  construction  of  the  sentences, 
the  marks  of  punctuation,  and  the  various  kinds  of 
figures  used  in  the  composition.  lie  must  make 
language  transparent,  in  order  that  thought  may  be 
revealed.  Let  the  idea  be  hereafter  wholly  dis 
carded  that  flippant  pronunciation  is  good  reading. 
Better  that  the  whole  time  of  a  recitation  be  spent 
upon  a  single  paragraph,  or  even  a  single  sentence, 
than  to  suffer  pupils  merely  to  utter  sounds  without 
perceiving  the  sense  they  represent.  If  teachers 
would  make  good  readers  of  their  pupils,  they  must 
teach  them  to  weigh  every  word,  phrase,  and  sen 
tence  of  the  lesson.  The  reading-lesson  prepared 
and  recited  in  this  manner  becomes  a  fine  intellec 
tual  exercise,  and  furnishes  good  opportunities  of 
imparting  valuable  instruction  in  practical  Gram 
mar  and  practical  Rhetoric.  To  those  pupils  who 
are  properly  prepared,  many  questions  relating  to 
the  language  used  in  the  lesson  to  be  read,  need  not 
be  put  at  any  one  recitation,  but  enough  should  be 
a^ked  to  keep  the  attention  of  the  class  constantly 
alive  to  the  importance  of  understanding  it. 

Skilful  reading  is  hardly  possible  for  one  who  is 
not  a  good  general  scholar.  A  person  who  has  been 


224  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

accustomed  to  study,  to  think,  who  has  read  good 
authors,  and  heard  intelligent  conversation,  will 
readily  see  the  meaning  of  a  word,  the  drift  of  a 
sentence,  the  aptness  of  a  figure,  the  propriety  of  an 
illustration,  the  point  of  a  witticism,  the  significance 
of  an  allusion,  the  force  of  an  argument,  or  the  scope 
of  a  discourse,  which  would  be  wholly  obscure  to 
another,  less  gifted  by  nature,  or  less  favored  by 
education.  The  whole  work  of  the  teacher  is,  there 
fore,  a  preparation  for  the  reading-lesson,  and  much 
benefit  may  result  from  so  regarding  it. 

2d.  Reading  as  related  to  the  Emotions.  —  Some 
thing  more  is  necessary,  in  order  to  read  well,  than 
to  understand  the  meaning  of  what  is  read.  There 
is,  probably,  no  literary  production  that  is  the  cold 
work  of  the  intellect  alone.  In  all  that  has  been 
written  of  prose  or  of  poetry,  the  emotions  play  an 
important  part.  The  plainest  composer  does  not 
write  wholly  without  feeling,  and  the  heart-beats  of 
the  true  poet  stir  in  his  every  line.  No  one  can 
read  skilfully  who  does  not  appreciate  the  senti 
ment  expressed  in  what  he  reads,  or  who  does 
not  feel  for  the  time  being  as  its  author  felt  when 
he  wrote  it.  He  cannot  read  well  of  beauty  who 
never  saw  anything  beautiful,  nor  he  of  gayety,  who 
never  felt  gay,  nor  he  of  sorrow  who  never  evinced 
pity,  nor  he  of  wit  who  never  enjoyed  a  joke. 

Our  school  classes  seldom  seem  to  feel  what  they 
undertake  to  read.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear 
passages,  as  unlike  in  sentiment  as  possible,  read 
without  variation  of  Force,  Pitch,  Rate,  or  Tone. 
It  is  uncommon  to  hear  reading  done  with  that 


BEADING.  225 

regard  to  the  feeling  expressed  in  the  composition 
which  at  once  evinces  good  taste  and  careful  cul 
ture.  Something  may  be  done  to  improve  this  bad 
reading. 

Such  rsading-lessons  should  be  assigned  as  are 
calculated  to  interest  the  classes  of  pupils  who  are 
to  learn  them.  If  the  feelings  of  children  do  not 
respond  to  the  sentiments  expressed  in  the  lessons 
they  read,  it  is  not  because  their  hearts  are  cold. 
Let  the  feelings  be  such  as  their  child-nature  can 
appreciate,  and  they  will  evince  no  want  of  sym 
pathy  with  them.  It  is  not  difficult  to  make  an 
application  of  this  principle  to  all  classes  of  those 
who  are  learning  to  read. 

The  teacher  should  lose  no  opportunity  of  im 
pressing  upon  his  pupils  the  ennobling  sentiments 
which  he  may  find  in  the  reading  lesson.  Many 
occasions  will  present  themselves  to  the  watchful 
teacher  of  awakening  in  their  minds  a  greater  love 
for  the  beautiful,  the  true,  and  the  good.  There  are 
beauty,  truth,  and  goodness  in  the  works  of  nature, 
in  art  and  science,  in  human  life,  in  the  Bible, 
in  God,  the  Fountain  of  all;  and,  now  and  then, 
they  are  caught  up  by  some  master  hand,  and,  ever 
after,  like  the  pearly  drops  that  hang  upon  the 
flowers,  like  the  beaded  bubbles  that  break  upon 
the  stream,  grace  our  literature.  These  the  teacher 
can  hold  before  the  gaze  of  admiring  pupils,  until 
their  hearts  respond  in  answering  sympathy.  Senti 
ments  of  an  opposite  character  may  be  found  in 
reading-lessons,  for  literature  is  but  a  reflection  of 
human  nature,  and  has  its  dark  side ;  but  right 
teaching  will  do  much  to  guard  against  their  iniiu- 


226  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

ence.      Ead   sentiments   will  not    be   more   loved 
because  well  read. 

One  of  the  highest  aims  of  composition  is  to 
adapt  the  linguistic  expression  of  thought  and  feel 
ing  to  their  nature.  Without  a  close  analysis  of  the 
language  used  by  an  author,  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  feel  as  he  felt  The  heart  of  an  author  and  the 
heart  of  a  reader  hold  communion  through  the 
medium  of  words.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  remove 
all  obscurity  from  this  medium,  not  only  by  explain 
ing  their  meaning,  but  by  exhibiting  the  music  and 
the  poetry  of  words.  I  have  marked  the  pleasure 
expressed  on  the  countenances  of  pupils  when  they 
first  began  to  appreciate  the  beauty  of  a  Metaphor, 
or  the  force  of  an  Antithesis*,  and  was  not  disap 
pointed  in  judging  that  such  appreciation  would 
improve  their  reading. 

All  education  that  tends  to  improve  the  taste  and 
to  give  proper  direction  to  the  emotive  nature,  will 
be  valuable  preparation  for  the  reading  lesson. 
Among  means  of  this  kind,  may  be  mentioned  ex 
tensive  and  varied  reading,  intelligent  travel,  famil 
iarity  with  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art,  and 
sympathy  with  the  comforts  and  pleasures,  the 
wants  and  woes,  the  fond  aspirations  and  the  proud 
successes,  the  blasted  hopes  and  the  fruitless  enter 
prises,  which  so  strangely  checker  human  life.  The 
Elocutionist  must  be  a  student  of  man's  mental 
nature,  learn  to  analyze  the  mingled  emotions  that 
agitate  his  bosom,  and  observe  and  imitate  the  most 
effective  manner  in  which  they  express  themselves 
in  posture,  in  gesture,  and  in  words. 


READING.  227 

3.  METHOD  OF  TEACHING  DELIVERY. 

Delivery  is  the  manner  of  reading.  Success  in 
Delivery  depends  upon  observing  the  relation  oe- 
tween  thought  and  feeling  and  their  expression. 
The  practical  end  for  which  skill  in  reading  may  be 
desired,  is  to  give  full  f  irce  to  the  meaning,  and  full 
effect  to  the  sentiment  of  an  author.  A  person  may 
possess  a  well-trained  voice,  and  may  have  both  the 
head  and  the  heart  to  appreciate  what  he  reads,  and, 
still,  for  want  of  power  to  adapt  the  one  to  the  other 
in  practical  use,  fail  to  read  well.  In  other  words, 
his  reading  machinery  can  be  quite  perfect,  and  yet 
ho  may  not  succeed  in  putting  its  several  parts  in 
working  order. 

What  is  designed  to  be  said  of  Delivery  can  be 
embraced  under  three  heads :  Expression,  Posture, 
and  G-esture. 

Expression. — Expression  is  vocal  Delivery.  The 
great  principle  to  be  observed  in  vocal  Delivery  is 
that  all  the  mechanical  modifications  of  the  voice 
should  be  governed  by  the  nature  of  the  thought 
and  feeling  to  be  expressed,  and  the  construction  of 
the  sentence  in  which  they  are  embodied.  This 
principle  may  be  applied  in  teaching  reading  in  two 
ways :  first,  the  teacher  may  read  correctly  and 
require  his  pupils  to  imitate  him  ;  and,  second,  the 
relations  existing  between  thought  and  feeling  and 
their  utterance  in  words,  may  be  generalized  into 
rules  which  can  be  learned  and  followed  in  reading. 

"With  children  just  beginning  to  read,  the  teacher 
must  instruct  them  mainly  by  using  their  powers  of 
imitation.  His  voice  must  be  their  constant  model. 
Rules  can  be  but  of  little  service  to  them.  A  large 


228  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

number  of  suitable  sentences  for  practice  may  be 
prepared ;  and  these  the  teacher  should  continue  to 
utter,  until  the  pupils  can  deliver  them  in  the  proper 
manner.  Faults  of  reading  should  be  prevented  by 
showing  what  is  right,  and  similar  faults  should  be 
corrected  by  showing  in  what  they  consist.  All 
descriptions  of  the  variations  of  the  voice  in  Quan 
tity,  Compass,  Movement,  or  Tone,  will  be  unmean 
ing,  unless  the  sound  described  be  itself  exhibited. 
This  method  of  teaching  Reading  by  imitation  is 
not  only  applicable  to  young  learners,  but  must  be 
used  throughout  the  whole  course  of  instruction.  In 
advanced  classes,  however,  it  is  to  be  employed  in 
connection  with  the  second  method  above  indicated. 
It  follows  from  all  this  that  the  teacher  should  be  a 
good  reader.  Reading  can  no  more  easily  be  taught 
by  one  who  is  not  an  Elocutionist  than  Vocal  Music 
can  be  taught  by  one  who  is  not  a  Musician. 

Books  which  treat  of  Elocution  contain  many 
rules  that  relate  to  Delivery.  There  are  rules  de 
signed  to  aid  the  student  in  the  use  of  Force,.  Em 
phasis,  Slur  and  Stress,  Pitch  and  Inflection,  Rate 
and  Pause,  and  Tone.  The  manner  in  which  sen 
tences  of  different  forms  should  be  delivered  is 
pointed  out ;  and,  in  order  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the 
pupil's  mind  concerning  the  application  of  the  rules, 
certain  reading  lessons  are  arranged  with  a  notation 
indicating  the  Quantity,  Compass,  Movement,  and 
Quality  of  voice  required.  Of  course,  rules  relating 
to  Posture  and  Gesture,  are  also  given.  That  some 
advantage  may  be  gained  from  the  study  of  these 
rules  by  learners  who  are  able  to  understand  and 
apply  them,  can  hardly  be  questioned ;  but  that 


READING.  22P 

harm  may  be  done  likewise  is  to  be  greatly  feared. 
If  pupils  can  be  made  to  see  that  conformity  to  the 
requirements  of  Elocutionary  rules  in  their  reading 
enables  them  better  to  present  the  thought  and  feel 
ing  of  an  author,  and  adds  more  force  and  graceful 
ness  to  their  Delivery,  these  rules  may  be  profitably 
studied  and  applied  ;  but  if  such  rules  are  them 
selves  arbitrary,  imperfectly  understood,  or  have 
been  derived  by  a  wrong  method,  the  more  effort 
that  is  made  to  apply  them,  the  more  stiff  and  formal 
will  the  Reading  become.  These  remarks  appro 
priately  introduce  the  question  :  What  constitutes 
good  Delivery  ?  The  teacher  must  have  some  stan 
dard  of  excellence  to  which  he  aspires  to  elevate 
his  class,  and  by  which  he  criticises  their  Elocu 
tionary  performances  —  What  is  that  standard?  It 
is  an  easy  matter  to  require  pupils  to  commit  and 
mechanically  apply  the  ordinary  rules  for  reading 
found  in  the  works  on  Elocution  ;  but  upon  what 
foundation  do  the  rules  themselves  rest  ?  Some 
say,  "  Mature  is  the  Standard."  It  is  admitted  that 
if  we  read  as  we  speak,  we  would  read  much  better 
than  we  do;  but  it  is  still  true  that  much  of  OUT 
reading  would  not  then  be  in  accordance  with  good 
taste.  There  are  very  few  persons  whose  vocal  organs 
do  not  need  culture ;  and,  even  of  those  who  have 
received  it,,  scarcely  any  two  have  the  same  natural 
style  of  speaking.  Whose  style  is  to  be  taken  as  a 
standard  ?  Others  maintain  that  Delivery  is  to  be 
measured  by  its  effects  upon  an  audience  —  if  it 
please,  it  is  good,  but  if  it  displease,  it  is  imperfect. 
A  reader  may  learn  much  respecting  his  impro 
prieties  of  Delivery  by  watching  its  effect  upon  his 
20 


2-K)  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

bearers;  but  he  will  find  such  a  standard  very  un 
reliable,  as  what  some  count  excellences  others  will 
consider  defects.  The  truth  is  that  Reading  is  a 
Fine  Art,  and  like  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architec 
ture,  and  other  such  Arts,  no  rules  of  criticism 
derived  empirically  are  as  an  ultimate  measure  of 
beauty  applicable  to  it.  Every  man  is  endowed 
directly  by  his  Maker  with  the  power  of  judging 
between  beauty  and  deformity,  and  he  uses  this 
power  in  criticising  nature  herself.  Given  suitable 
occasions  for  its  exercise,  and  this  taste  is  capable 
of  improvement,  and  detects  beauty  with  more  cer 
tainty.  Delivery  in  Reading,  as  well  as  style  in  the 
other  Fine  Arts,  is  wholly  a  matter  of  taste ;  and 
Elocutionary  rules  made  by  others  than  those  who 
are  capable  of  judging  what  is  most  fit  and  beautiful 
in  Expression,  or  most  graceful  in  Posture  or  Ges 
ture,  are  entirely  unworthy  of  confidence.  Such 
rules  as  express  the  laws  of  taste,  however,  the 
teacher  is  at  liberty  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
his  pupils.  He  must  always  exemplify  them  by  his 
own  reading.  Thus  learned,  they  will  serve  as 
models.  Properly  presented,  they  do  not  destroy 
the  learner's  individuality,  they  do  not  convert  him 
into  a  mere  machine,  but  they  leave  room  for  the 
display  of  the  peculiarities  of  his  own  genius,  and 
tend  only  to  promote  the  normal  growth  of  that 
noble  part  of  his  nature  which  directs  him  where 
to  find  the  beautiful  and  how  to  appreciate  it. 

Supposing  that  pupils  have  received  proper  vocal 
training  and  that  intellectual  and  moral  instruction 
which  fits  them  to  read  well,  the  teacher's  further 
duty  consists  in  cultivating  their  taste  in  Dehveiy 


READING.  281 

by  furnishing  occasions  for  its  exercise,  in  present 
ing  them  a  chaste  model  for  imitation  in  his  own 
Delivery,  in  guiding  them  by  such  rules  as  express 
the  generalized  results  of  the  masters  of  the  art,  and 
in  providing  for  them  those  opportunities  of  prac 
tice  which  are  necessary  to  make  the  required  modes 
of  Expression  and  Action  habitual.  Skill  in  Read 
ing,  thus  attained,  will  be  a  growth  of  that  which  is 
within  the  learner,  and  not  an  imposition  upon  him 
from  without  —  it  will  be  the  realization  in  Expres 
sion  of  his  own  ideals  of  beauty. 

Posture.  —  The  position  which  the  body  assumes 
in  Heading  or  Speaking  is  called  Posture.  Posture 
relates  simply  to  the  disposition  of  the  different 
members  of  the  body  before  or  during  Delivery, 
while  Gesture  is  applied  to  such  of  the  motions  of 
these  members  as  indicate  or  enforce  thought  or 
feeling. 

It  will  be  necessary  upon  this  subject  to  do  little 
more  than  to  announce  the  general  principles  which 
have  reference  to  it. 

1st.  The  Posture  of  the  Reader  should  be  one  of  ease 
to  him.self. — To  secure  an  easy  Posture,  the  reader 
must  violate  no  Physiological  law.  He  must  stand 
firmly,  but  not  stiffly,  on  his  feet ;  change  his  weight 
frequently  from  one  foot  to  the  other ;  keep  his 
body  erect;  project  his  chest  forward  and  throw  his 
shoulders  back;  and  allow  his  arms  to  hang  naturally 
by  his  side.  If  a  book  is  used,  it  should  be  held  in 
the  left  hand,  in  order  that  the  right  may  be  readily 
employed  in  turning  the  leaves,  or  in  Gesticulating 


232  INSTRUCTION"   IN    LANGUAGE. 

In  short,  the  easiest  Posture  should  be  sought  and 
maintained  for  all  the  members  of  the  body. 

2d.  The  Posture  of  a  Reader  should  be  graceful.  — 
If  a  reader  stand  perfectly  at  ease,  his  Posture  will 
exhibit  a  good  degree  of  gracefulness.  In  addition 
to  this,  however,  a  reader  should  rise  gracefully; 
walk  forward  gracefully ;  take  his  position,  and 
change  it,  when  necessary,  gracefully ;  make  all  the 
members  of  the  body  retain  their  place,  and  perform 
their  part  gracefully;  and,  when  done,  gracefully 
take  his  seat. 

All  Postures  must  be  practiced  until  they  become 
habitual.  The  pupil's  taste,  as  to  what  is  graceful, 
must  be  chastened  by  an  exhibition  of  the  best 
models  the  teacher  can  furnish. 

G-esture.  —  Gestures  are  the  actions  of  the  various 
members  of  the  body,  which  indicate  and  enforce 
thought  and  feeling.  Heading  and  Speaking  in  the 
English  language  are  characterized  by  less  Gesticu 
lation  than  was  used  by  the  nations  of  antiquity, 
with  which  we  are  best  acquainted,  or  than  is  now 
used  among  many  modern  nations ;  but  still  the 
subject  deserves  more  attention  than  is  generally 
accorded  to  it.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Head 
ing,  Declamation,  and  Oratory  are  all  much  more 
effective  when  Expression  in  Delivery  is  accompa 
nied  by  appropriate  Gestures. 

In  speaking  of  methods  of  teaching  Gesture,  all 
that  was  said  of  Expression  might  be  repeated,  with 
little  modification.  Gesture  can  be  taught  by  imi 
tation,  and,  also,  by  learning  and  applying  the  rules 


READING.  233 

which  express  the  relations  between  sentiment  and 
Action.  Young  beginners  can  be  taught  only  by 
requiring  them  to  imitate  the  models  the  teacher 
may  exhibit  to  them.  He  must  show  them  what  is 
right,  and  patiently  train  them  to  do  it.  Elocution 
ists  profess  to  have  analyzed  the  bodily  actions 
which  indicate  and  enforce  thought  and  feeling, 
and  to  be  able  to  frame  rules  that  will  serve  to 
guide  pupils  in  Gesticulating.  Each  thought  and 
each  feeling  in  these  systems  is  indicated  and 
enforced  by  certain  motions  of  the  hands,  the  arms, 
the  feet,  the  head,  the  mouth,  the  eyes,  or  some 
other  member  or  members  of  the  body ;  and 
pupils  are  expected  to  learn  and  apply  them  in 
reading.  Heading-lessons,  too,  are  sometimes  no- 
tated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  what  Ges 
tures  are  deemed  appropriate.  Kules  for  Gestures, 
thus  formed,  are  advantageous  to  pupils,  under  the 
same  conditions  as  those  for  Expression,  and  open 
to  the  same  objections.  Gestures  should  express 
some  meaning,  or  else  not  be  used.  The  same 
standard,  that  of  cultivated  taste,  by  which  Delivery 
in  sound  may  be  criticised,  is  equally  applicable  to 
Delivery  in  action.  And,  finally,  as  in  Expression, 
'the  teacher  must  multiply  occasions  for  the  exercise 
of  the  taste  of  his  pupils  in  Gesticulation,  he  must 
give  them  in  his  own  Delivery  a  fit  model  for  imi 
tation,  he  must  teach  them  to  conform  to  rules 
which  good  taste  has  everywhere  sanctioned,  and 
he  must  provide  them  that  practice  which  is  ncces 
sary  to  prompt  the  ready  Gesture,  even  while  the 
words  leap  from  the  tongue. 
20* 


234  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

It  is  proper  to  close  this  discussion  with  a  sum 
mary  of  topics  which  may  profitably  be  considered 
in  conducting  a  recitation  in  Reading.  They  may 
aid  pupils  in  preparing  lessons,  as  well  as  guide 
teachers  in  hearing  recitations.  Many  or  few  ques 
tions  may  be  asked  under  each  head  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  class ;  or,  in  particular 
cases,  some  of  the  topics  may  be  altogether  omitted. 
A  perfect  recitation  would  require  a  perfect  know 
ledge  of  all  that  is  embraced  in  the  list.  It  may  be 
added  that  passages  should  be  daily  committed  to 
memory,  and  declaimed.  All  Delivery  is  much 
crippled  by  the  use  of  a  book. 

LlST   OF    TOPICS    FOR  A  RECITATION   IN   READING. — 

Before  reading  a  passage,  pupils  should  be  able — 

1.  To  pronounce  the  words. 

2.  To  define  the  words. 

3.  To  understand  the  subject-matter. 

4.  To  explain  the  language. 

5.  To  account  for  the  marks  of  Punctuation. 

6.  To  point  out  what  is  true,  beautiful,  and  good 
in  the  sentiment. 

7.  To  show  the  manner  of   Delivery,   and   give 
reasons  for  it. 

II.  LEARNING  TO  UNDERSTAND  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE. 
In  learning  to  understand  our  Mother-Tongue,  it 
is  necessary  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  four  distinct 
branches  of  study,  viz. :  Lexicology,  or  the  science 
ft-hich  treats  of  words ;  Grammar,  or  the  science 
which  treats  of  sentences;  Rhetoric,  or  the  science 
tvhich  treats  of  discourse;  and  Philology,  or  the 
science  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  Language. 


LEXICOLOGY.  235 

LEXICOLOGY. 

I  use  the  term  Lexicology  to  denote  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  meaning  of  words ;  and  methodb 
of  teaching  the  meaning  of  words  is  the  subject 
intended  for  discussion  in  the  present  Article. 

There  can  be  no  conscious  thinking  without  the 
use  of  symbols.  The  most  convenient  of  all  thought- 
signs  are  words.  Words,  indeed,  are  the  wheels  by 
which  the  thinking  process  goes  on. 

Words  are  the  vehicles  of  social  intercourse. 
Without  them,  the  fountains  of  the  soul  would  be 
almost  sealed  up. 

Words  are  the  repositories  of  science  and  art. 
The  dead  past  lies  buried,  but  living  words  com 
memorate  it  and  transmit  its  mighty  deeds  to  the 
far  future.  Words  are  the  caskets  in  which  are 
preserved  forever  the  jeweled  thoughts  of  the  good 
and  great.  How  much  feeling,  thought,  or  power 
may  be  concentrated  in  a  single  word :  as  love,  truth, 
will! 

Words  are  the  medals  of  the  mind.  All  oui 
mental  energies  impress  themselves  upon  words.  A 
nation's  character  can  be  best  read  in  its  language. 
"  Language  is  concrete  Metaphysics." 

Words  are  the  media  of  instruction.  A  know 
ledge  of  the  simplest  facts  as  well  as  the  deepest 
philosophy  is  almost  helpless  without  the  motive- 
power  of  words.  Words  are  the  winged  messengers 
that  convey  information  from  one  mind  and  heaH 
to  another.  All  knowledge  must  be  labeled  with 
words  or  it  ran  find  no  place  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
memory. 


236  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

Such  is  the  worth  of  words.  It  is  surely  worth 
while  to  study  their  meaning. 

There  are  many  ways  by  which  the  young  may 
learn  the  meaning  of  words.  They  may  learn  it  by 
direct  intuition;  hy  concrete  explanations;  by  the  use 
of  simplified  expressions;  by  observing  thzir  significa 
tion  as  used  in  sentences;  by  the  study  of  foreign  lan 
guages  ;  by  an  acquaintance  with  Etymology ;  and  by 
scientific  definitions. 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  direct  intui 
tion. — Children  learn  the  first  elements  of  language 
by  hearing  persons  speak,  and  noticing  the  associa 
tion  made  between  certain  verbal  utterances  and 
sensible  objects.  "When  a  little  older,  they  seem  to 
increase  their  vocabulary  by  catching  the  meaning 
of  words  from  the  connections  in  which  they  are 
used.  In  all  nature  there  is  nothing  more  wonder 
ful  than  the  process  by  which  children  learn  to 
talk.  They  seem  to  possess  a  language-forming 
instinct.  They  have  thoughts  and  feelings  impris 
oned  within  them,  and  instinctively  seek  to  set 
them  free.  If  they  had  no  opportunity  of  hearing 
words  they  would  invent  them.  As  it  is,  they  add 
to  their  stock  of  word-knowledge  every  day,  their 
memories  clinging  tenaciously  to  all  the  words  they 
listen  to.  They  catch  up  words  from  parents, 
brothers  and  sisters,  companions,  servants,  visitors, 
and  often,  indeed,  coin  new  ones.  In  all  this,  there 
is  no  conscious  reasoning,  no  formal  instruction, 
and  I  call  the  process  intuition. 

In  view  of  the  power  children  possess  of  learning 


LEXICOLOGY.  237 

the  meaning  of  words  by  intuition,  it  "becomes  the 
teacher's  duty  to  allow  them  an  opportunity  to  exer 
cise  this  power.  He  may  talk  to  them  of  things  ill 
which  they  feel  an  interest,  tell  them  stories,  or 
read  suitable  selections  to  them.  If  he  adapts  his 
matter  and  style  to  their  mental  condition,  he  will 
not  want  attentive  listeners,  and  he  will  enjoy  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  them  acquire  the  use  of  new 
words  and  new  forms  of  expression  every  day.  A 
teacher  must  not  only  talk  to  his  pupils,  but  he 
must  listen  to  their  talk.  Children  are  great  talkers. 
There  is  within  them  an  impulse  strongly  and  con 
stantly  impelling  them  to  hear,  to  see,  to  examine 
things,  and  then  to  tell  about  them.  Prevent  a 
child  from  talking,  force  him  to  perpetual  silence, 
and  you  will  make  him  an  idiot.  Besides,  a  child 
loves  to  use  the  new  words  he  has  acquired,  and  the 
watchful  teacher  can  readily  detect  the  reproduction 
of  his  own  expressions  in  the  language  of  his  pupils. 
As  soon  as  children  are  able  to  read  they  will  have 
opened  up  a  new  source  from  which  to  enlarge  their 
knowledge  of  words. 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  concrete  expla 
nations. —  By  concrete  explanations  of  words  are 
meant  such  explanations  as  may  be  given  by  means 
of  an  exhibition  of  the  objects,  actions,  or  qualities 
for  which  the  words  stand.  For  example,  the  word 
pistil  could  be  explained  by  pointing  to  that  part  of 
a  flower,  the  word  decrepitate  by  throwing  a  little  salt 
into  the  fire,  and  the  word  transparent  by  holding 
\3p  a  piece  of  glass.  In  the  absence  cf  an  object, 


238  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

the  well-remembered  experience  of  a  child  may  be 
used  instead  of  it. 

No  one  can  doubt  that  if  proper  skill  was  used, 
the  pupils  in  our  schools  might  be  made  acquainted 
with  a  large  number  of  words  in  the  way  just  named. 
Lessons  011  objects  are  well  calculated  to  impart  this 
kind  of  instruction,  but  a  teacher  who  sees  the  im 
portance  of  it  can  find  opportunity  to  impart  it  iu 
giving  a  lesson  on  any  subject.  Special  lessons 
planned  with  reference  to  this  end,  might  be  made 
very  profitable  as  well  as  very  interesting. 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  the  use  of 
simplified  expressions. — If  the  meaning  of  a  word  is 
not  understood,  it  may  be  explained  by  using  less 
obscure  synonymous  words  or  forms  of  words — that 
is  by  the  use  of  simplified  expressions.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  the  words  in  a  Dictionary  are  defined, 
if  the  process  is  properly  called  defining,  in  this 
manner.  The  "  definition"  of  the  word  abandon  is 
to  give  up,  to  forsake  ;  of  the  word  abbreviate,  to  shorten; 
of  the  word  abrogate,  to  repeal;  of  the  word  absur 
dity,  the  quality  of  being  inconsistent  with  obvious  truth; 
and  so  on  for  thousands  of  words.  It  is  evident  in 
all  these  cases  that  if  a  pupil  comprehends  the 
"  definition"  he  can  comprehend  the  word  defined. 

How  can  a  teacher  make  use  of  simplified  expres 
sions  in  teaching  the  meaning  of  words  ?  In  the 
first  place,  no  words  must  be  used  in  the  explana 
tions  which  the  pupils  do  not  understand.  The 
unknown  can  be  understood  only  from  its  connec 
tions  with  the  known.  Many  school  dictionaries  err 
gravely  on  this  point  and  thus  defeat  their  whole 


LEXICOLOGY.  239 

object.  Moreover,  a  School  Dictionary  ought  to 
illustrate  the  meaning  of  every  word  "by  appropriate 
sentences  in  which  the  word  is  used.  It  would  be 
much  better,  too,  for  the  purposes  of  teaching,  if 
the  words  were  arranged  in  lessons  according  to 
the  subjects  or  things  to  which  they  relate,  and  not 
Alphabetically. 

The  common  school-exercise  of  "learning  deft- 

O 

nitions"  is  open  to  serious  objections.  It  requires 
pupils  to  commit  the  explanations  of  words  to 
memory  and  recite  them,  but  presents  no  test  to 
ascertain  whether  they  are  understood  or  otherwise. 
A  new  word  is  valuable  only  when  accompanied  by 
a  new  thought,  or  when  it  furnishes  a  better  expres 
sion  for  an  old  one.  Words  simply  memorized  are 
dead,  mere  skeleton-words,  without  life  or  soul  in 
them.  They  lie  in  the  memory  a  confused  mass,  of 
which  no  use  can  be  made.  If  text-books  on  Lexi 
cology  were  arranged  as  indicated  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  they  might  be  used  in  classes,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  pupils.  If,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
synonymes  and  synonymous  expressions,  sentences 
embodying  each  word  were  presented,  its  meaning 
would  become  apparent.  Besides,  pupils  should  be 
required  to  compose  original  sentences  containing 
the  words  of  the  lesson,  and  this  they  could  not  do 
without  understanding  them.  "Words  having  some 
relation  to  one  another  form  a  much  more  interest 
ing  lesson  than  dry  lists  of  disconnected  words. 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  ly  observing 
their  Signification  as  used  in  Sentences. — It  has  already 
been  intimated  thaf  the  meaning  of  words  can  be 


240  INSTRUCTION"   IN    LANGUAGE. 

more  readily  discerned  in  sentences  than  in  the 
columns  of  Spelling-Books  or  Dictionaries.  Chil 
dren  especially  are  apt  in  learning  the  meaning  of 
words  in  this  way.  They  rise  from  the  perusal  of 
every  good  book  with  a  rich  accession  of  new  words; 
and  a  person  can  often  tell  the  volume  a  child  has 
been  engaged  in  reading  by  his  language.  More 
over,  the  finer  shades  of  meaning,  which  distinguish 
individual  words,  the  innermost  thought  embodied 
in  a  word,  cannot  be  learned  from  a  Dictionary. 
Lexicographers  explain  each  word  by  the  use  of 
other  words  or  forms  of  expression,  but,  since  these 
cannot  mean  exactly  the  same  thing,  every  scholar 
has  felt  the  deficiencies  of  Dictionaries,  and  is  aware 
that  they  cannot  be  supplied.  Those  who  desire  to 
realize  the  deepest  meaning  of  words  must  study 
them  in  discourse. 

Teachers  can  do  much  to  inculcate  a  taste  for 
reading  among  their  pupils,  and  in  this  way,  among 
other  good  results,  enable  them  to  increase  their 
facility  in  the  use  of  language.  The  reading-lesson 
furnishes  a  good  opportunity  for  calling  the  atten 
tion  of  pupils  to  the  meaning  of  words,  as  used 
singly,  or  in  phrases,  clauses,  or  whole  sentences,  or 
whether  in  a  plain  or  a  figurative  sense.  Something 
may  be  done,  too,  to  impart  similar  instruction  in 
hearing  recitations  in  any  branch  of  knowledge.  If 
new  or  uncommon  words  occur  in  a  lesson,  it  is  well 
for  the  teacher  to  require  an  explanation  of  them. 
The  attention  of  pupils  can  thus  be  kept  directed 
upon  the  words  they  meet  with  in  their  studies,  and 
every  day  some  addition  will  be  made  to  their  prac 
tical  vocabulary. 


LEXICOLOGY.  241 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  the  study  of 
Foreign  Languages. — In  the  study  of  foreign  lan 
guages,  we  necessarily  use  our  Mother-Tongue.  No 
practice  can  be  better  calculated  to  familiarize  us 
with  the  meaning  of  words  than  that  of  translating 
the  words  of  our  own  into  another  language,  or  the 
reverse.  It  is  hardly  possible  otherwise  to  develop 
that  fine  sense  by  which  the  nicer  distinctions 
among  words  and  forms  of  expression  can  be  per 
ceived.  Nothing  further  need  be  stated  here,  as 
elsewhere  there  will  be  found  a  discussion  of 
methods  of  teaching  these  languages. 

The  meaning  of  words  may  be  learned  by  an  acquaint 
ance  with  Etymology.  —  The  English  is  a  composite 
language.  Its  ground-work  is  the  Anglo-Saxon 
element,  but  it  has  been  enriched  by  the  introduc 
tion  of  multitudes  of  words  from  the  Latin,  Greek, 
French,  German,  Danish,  and  other  languages. 
Anglo-Saxon  words  mainly  compose  the  language 
of  common  life,  and  their  meaning  is  generally 
learned  without  study.  Those  words  for  whose 
meaning  we  search  Dictionaries  are  mostly  deriva 
tive  words;  and  in  order  to  understand  them  fully 
it  is  almost  necessary  to  study  their  Etymology.  It 
is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  without  performing 
an  Etymological  analysis  of  words,  no  student  can 
use  them  with  nice  discrimination  and  full  effect. 

Etymologists  have  made  three  classes  of  the  ele 
ments  of  words,  as  follows :  Prefixes,  Suffixes,  and 
Root- Words.  With  respect  to  methods  of  teaching, 
the  first  two  classes  may  be  placed  together. 

A  method  of  teaching  Prefixes  and  Suffixes  may 

21 


212  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

be  readily  indicated.  A  well-arranged  text-book 
on  Etymology  should  contain  lists  of  Prefixes  and 
Suffixes,  their  signification,  and  numerous  examples, 
in  which  the  meaning  of  each  is  plainly  illustrated. 
Lessons  may  be  assigned  and  prepared,  as  in  other 
studies.  At  the  recitation,  pupils  may  be  required 
to  write  on  the  blackboard  lists  of  the  elements  em 
braced  in  the  lesson,  together  with  their  significa 
tions.  They  may  point  out  the  Prefixes  and  Suffixes 
in  the  words  presented  as  examples  in  the  book,  and 
write  words  containing  any  given  element.  Teachers 
ought  to  prepare  themselves  with  a  number  of  mis 
cellaneous  words  as  tests  of  their  pupils'  skill. 

When  pupils  have  been  made  thoroughly  ac 
quainted  with  the  Prefixes  and  Suffixes,  the  work 
of  teaching  them  the  Root- Words  of  the  languagt 
should  commence.  Almost  the  only  Root- Words 
whose  meaning  is  not  known  without  study  are 
those  which  have  come  into  our  language  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  the  signification  of  these  must 
be  learned  from  text-book  or  teacher.  Text-Books 
on  Etymology  generally  present  a  Root-Word,  ex 
plain  its  meaning,  and  then  give  lists  of  words 
derived  from  it.  For  example,  the  Latin  word 
traho  is  presented ;  its  primary  meaning  is  stated  to 
be  to  draw,  and  then  follow  words  like  attraction, 
subtraction,  detraction,  protraction,  contraction,  retrac 
tion,  traceable,  trackless;  and  others  more  obscure  in 
their  derivation,  as  contra  liability,  subtrahend,  drag, 
portrait,  track,  trade,  tract,  &c.  In  reciting,  pupils 
should  be  required  to  give  the  Root-Words  and  their 
meaning,  and  then  to  analyze  the  derivative  word:? 
presented  as  examples,  pointing  out  the  force  of  the 


LEXICOLOGY.  243 

elements  composing  them,  and  the  laws  of  their 
union,  and,  finally,  explaining  the  meaning  of  the 
whole  word.  The  mode  of  Etymological  analysis 
may  be  illustrated  by  an  example.  Take  the  word, 
attraction :  ATTRACTION.  PREFIX,  at-,  signifying 
to,  changed  from  ad  on  account  of  euphony ;  SUFFIX, 
-ion,  signifying  the  act  of  or  process;  RooT-WoRD, 
-tract-,  derived  from  the  Latin,  traho  or  tractum,  which 
signifies  to  draw ;  MEANING  OF  THE  WORD,  the  act  or 
the  process  of  drawing  to,  or  the  tendency  of  bodies  to 
approach  one  another  and  adhere  together.  After  an 
alyzing  a  word,  pupils  may  embody  it  in  sentences. 
A  text-book  ought  not  to  contain  full  lists  of  deriva 
tive  words,  as  pupils  are  much  profited  by  searching 
for  them.  Miscellaneous  exercises  in  the  analysis 
of  words  must  be  furnished  either  by  the  text-book 
or  the  teacher.  It  may  be  remarked  further  that 
instead  of  committing  to  memory  the  meaning  of 
Prefixes,  Suffixes,  and  Root -Words,  and  analyzing 
words  by  the  aid  of  this  knowledge,  lists  of  words 
which  contain  some  common  element  may  first  be 
given  to  the  pupil,  the  meaning  of  that  element 
be  ascertained  and  traced  in  other  words,  and, 
finally,  syntheses  of  such  elements  be  formed.  This 
method,  however,  will  not  be  found  to  differ  ma 
terially  in  practice  from  the  preceding. 

In  conducting  exercises  in  Etymological  analysis, 
the  teacher  can  deepen  his  pupil's  interest  in  the 
study  of  words  by  imparting  information,  now  and 
then,  in  regard  to  the  origin  and  history  of  words, 
lie  might  introduce  into  almost  every  lesson  a  few 
words  whose  primitive  meaning  would  attract  special 
attention,  or  whose  history  would  excite  peculiar 


244  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

curiosity.  It  might  be  explained  how  new  words 
come  into  a  language,  how  old  ones  become  obso 
lete,  and  why  some  languages  contain  words  for 
which  no  expressions  are  found  in  others.  This  is, 
indeed,  a  rich  field,  and  it  can  be  worked  by  a  skil 
ful  teacher  so  as  to  yield  fruit  a  hundredfold. 

TJis  meaning  of  words  way  be  learned  ly  scientific  de 
finitions. — A  definition  is  a  connected  statement  of 
the  essential  properties  or  qualities  of  a  name  or 
a  thing.  These  properties  or  qualities  may  be  the 
results  of  experience  or  they  may  be  the  pure  pro 
ducts  of  the  Reason.  The  definitions  peculiar  to  the 
Empirical  Sciences  are  of  the  former  class,  and  those 
which  belong  to  the  Formal  and  Rational  Sciences 
are  of  the  latter  class.  Compare,  for  example,  the 
definitions  of  a  mountain,  a  leaf,  a  bone,  on  the  one 
hand,  with  those  of  a  circle,  order,  truth,  beauty, 
goodness,  considered  abstractly,  on  the  other. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  construction  of 
scientific  definitions  requires  very  accurate  know 
ledge  both  of  things  and  words.  A  good  definition 
is  always  a  scientific  triumph.  It  indicates  that  the 
thing  defined  has  been  thoroughly  investigated; 
that  all  that  is  essential  to  it  has  been  connected  in 
thought  and  expressed  in  words.  Such  definitions 
make  plain  the  meaning  of  words  to  those  who  will 
take  pains  to  study  them. 

In  regard  to  teaching  scientific  definitions,  it  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  little  advantage  is 
derived  from  simply  committing  them  to  memory. 
If  not  understood,  they  are  mere  empty  words  that 
but  cumber  the  mind  without  strengthening  it.  The 


GRAMMAR.  246 

kind  of  definitions  now  referred  to  can  only  be 
learned  by  learning  the  elements,  real  or  ideal,  of 
which  they  are  made  up.  The  teacher  must  carry 
his  pupil  back  from  the  forms  of  words  to  the  rela 
tions  of  things,  and  then  no  school-exercise  can  be 
more  useful  than  that  of  learning  definitions. 

GRAMMAR. 

Few  branches  of  study  have  been  taught  less 
skilfully  than  Grammar.  This  bad  teaching  is 
owing  to  both  text-book  and  teacher. 

There  is  no  text-book  on  English  Grammar  that 
is  a  strictly  scientific  exposition  of  the  principles 
of  the  English  language.  Treatises  upon  this  sub 
ject  may  be  found  which  contain  a  great  deal  that 
is  valuable  ;  but,  in  all  of  them,  there  is  too  much 
effort  made  to  fit  the  peculiar  constructions  of  our 
Anglo-Saxon  speech  to  the  forms  of  the  ancient  lan 
guages.  More  independence  of  thought  is  wanted 
in  treating  of  the  English  language.  Not  till  some 
scholar  is  strong  enough  and  bold  enough  to  strip 
the  subject  of  its  superfluous  forms  and  rid  it  of  its 
incorrect  definitions,  and  present  its  laws  in  a  con- 
.  cise,  consistent,  and  logical  manner,  will  we  have, 
what  can  be  truly  called,  an  English  Grammar.  Be 
sides,  the  arrangement  of  most  of  our  Grammar 
books  is  the  worst  possible  for  the  purpose  of  teach 
ing  beginners.  They  commence  by  giving  a  defini 
tion  of  Grammar,  by  stating  its  great  general  divi 
sions,  by  fixing  the  number  of  Parts  of  Speech,  &c. 
--none  of  which  generalizations  can  possibly  be 
understood  without  at  least  some  knowledge  of  the 

language.     They  would  be  more  appropriate  at  the 
21* 


246  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

end  of  the  bcok  than  at  the  beginning  of  it.  Ill 
teaching,  definitions  should  be  accompanied  with 
an  exposition  of  their  contents;  and  generalizations, 
with  a  statement  of  the  facts  on  which  they  are 
founded ;  but  these  principles  are  constantly  vio 
lated  by  our  authors  of  Grammars. 

Good  teaching  may  neutralize  the  bad  results 
which  are  apt  to  follow  from  the  use  of  imperfect 
text-books ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  in  the  case 
of  Grammar  many  of  the  commonly  practiced 
methods  of  teaching  tend  rather  to  increase  these 
bad  results  than  to  diminish  them.  A  majority 
of  teachers  to-day  in  teaching  Grammar  blindly 
follow  the  order  of  the  text-book;  and  though 
every  recitation  should  furnish  evidence  that  this 
is  an  error,  they  fail  to  appreciate  it.  Grammar,  as 
generally  taught,  consists  in  memorizing  definitions, 
decle:  ?\ons,  conjugations,  and  rules,  and  in  applying 
them  in  parsing  and  in  the  correction  of  examples 
in  False  Syntax.  Pursued  in  this  manner,  it  is  an 
artificial  and  arbitrary  system  built  up  apart  from 
the  ground  upon  which  as  a  science  it  must  rest. 
Definitions,  rules,  and  forms,  in  Grammar  are  merely 
wo'ds  and  mean  nothing  disconnected  from  the  facts 
and  principles  which  underlie  them. 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  sentences.  English 
Grammar  is  the  science  of  the  English  sentence. 
There  are  certain  general  principles  which  are  ap 
plicable  to  the  sentences  of  all  languages,  and  there 
are  other  principles  which  belong  only  to  those  of 
particular  languages.  The  division  just  maJe  is 
therefore  a  proper  one.  Grammar  is  not  an  art 
Composition  treats  of  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing. 


GRAMMAR  247 

Sentences  are  composed  of  words,  and  these  \\ords 
may  be  classified  according  to  their  individual  mean 
ing  or  office ;  the  modifications,  properties,  and  re 
lations  of  each  class  may  be  determined ;  and  the 
whole  be  made  to  constitute  a  system  of  English 
Grammar.  This  method  of  studying  the  sentence 
may  be  called  Etymological  inasmuch  as  it  deals  with 
words  as  the  best  defined,  integral  parts  of  which 
sentences  are  composed. 

Sentences  are  composed  of  elements,  some  of  them 
essential  and  others  non-essential,  at  some  times 
consisting  of  a  single  word  and  at  other  times  of 
several  words  combined,  and  these  elements  may  be 
classified  according  to  their  sentential  relations, 
each  class  become  the  subject  of  scientific  investi 
gation,  and  the  result  be  made  to  constitute  another 
system  of  English  Grammar.  This  method  of  study 
ing  the  sentence  may  de  called  Logical  inasmuch  as 
it  is  based  upon  the  mutual  relations  of  the  elements 
of  sentences. 

These  two  methods  are  both  essentially  analytical, 
and  are  not  at  all  antagonistic.  Both  ought  to  be 
combined  in  practical  teaching.  The  Logical  method 
might  first  consider  sentences  as  wholes  and  then 
find  and  dispose  of  their  elements  ;  after  which  the 
Etymological  method  might  treat  of  the  individual 
words  of  which  they  are  composed.  Neither  can 
be  dispensed  with  in  the  construction  of  a  system 
of  Grammatical  science. 

To  commence  the  study  of  the  science  of  Gram 
mar  proper,  with  the  prospect  of  much  profit,  pupils 
ought  to  possess  considerable  general  knowledge, 
and  be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age.  The 


248  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

first  steps  may  be  easy,  but  it  requires  some  maturity 
of  thought  to  comprehend  the  principles  which  are 
soon  involved.  Previous  to  the  time  of  their  com 
mencing  the  study  of  the  science  of  Grammar, 
pupils  should  have  much  practice  in  elementary 
Composition,  of  which  it  is  intended  to  speak  here 
after,  and  it  would  be  greatly  to  their  advantage  to 
be  taught  the  exercises  now  about  to  be  described. 
I  call  them  Etymological  Exercises,  and  desire  that 
they  should  be  considered  as  an  introduction  to  the 
study  of  Grammar 

ETYMOLOGICAL  EXERCISES. 

EXERCISE  FIRST. — Nouns.  —  The  class  may  be  re 
quired  to  write  on  slates  or  blackboard  the  names 
of  the  objects  in  the  school-room.  This '  work 
having  been  criticised  by  one  another  and  corrected 
by  the  teacher  in  respect  to  spelling,  punctuation, 
neatness,  &c.,  they  may  be  required  to  write  furthei 
the  names  of  things  seen  in  coming  to  school,  those 
which  stand  for  kinds  of  trees,  flowers,  the  organs 
of  the  body,  the  parts  of  a  house,  the  tools  used  by 
farmers  or  mechanics,  the  articles  purchased  at 
stores,  &c. ;  and  submit  their  work  for  correction  as 
before.  They  may  now  be  told  that  the  names  of 
objects  are  called  Nouns ;  and  much  further  practice 
should  be  allowed  them  in  selecting  the  Nouns  in 
sentences  and  framing  sentences  containing  Nouns. 

EXERCISE  SECOND. — Kinds  of  Nouns. — The  teacher 
may  name  the  boys  in  the  class,  and  ask  for  the 
name  common  to  all.  The  girls  may  be  named  in 
the  same  way,  and  also  particular  cities,  rivers. 


GRAMMAR.  249 

mountains,  &c.,  and  like  inquiries  be  made  concern 
ing  them.  Some  common  name  can  then  be  assigned 
as  horse,  book,  man,  and  the  pupils  required  to  write 
all  the  particular  names  that  they  can  think  of  which 
are  comprehended  in  the  general  name.  This  done, 
the  terms  Common  and  Proper,  as  applied  to  Nouns, 
can  be  defined,  and  pupils  be  profitably  engaged  in 
classing  them  accordingly,  in  pointing  them  out  in 
sentences,  and  in  constructing  sentences  containing 
them. 

E'XERCISE  THIRD.  —  The  Properties  of  Nouns. — 
Gender,  Number,  and  Person  are  the  only  Properties 
of  Nouns  that  can  be  taught  intelligently  without 
an  analysis  of  sentences.  Case,  therefore,  except 
the  Possessive,  cannot  be  treated  of  in  this  con 
nection. 

The  teacher  need  not  point  out  many  examples 
to  enable  pupils  to  understand  the  distinctions  of 
Gender  and  Number.  They  can  readily  see,  too, 
that  some  objects  speak,  some  are  spoken  to,  and 
others  are  spoken  of.  They  should  be  required, 
however,  to  write  lists  of  words  denoting  objects  in 
each  Gender,  Number,  and  Person;  and  point  them 
out  as  they  occur  in  sentences.  Sentences  may  be 
written  containing  such  words. 

EXERCISE  FOURTH. —  Verbs. — The  method  of  teach 
ing  Verbs  will  be  understood  by  the  following  illus 
tration  :  What  does  the  fire  do  ?  Class.  "  It  burns." 
Write  the  word  "  burns"  on  your  slates.  What  does 
the  wind  do  ?  Class.  "  It  blows."  Write  "  blows," 
aleo.  What  does  *he  rain  do?  Class.  "It  falls." 


250  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

"What  are  the  birds  doing  in  yonder  grove  ?  Class. 
"They  sing."  What  can  you  say  of  plants ?  Class. 
"  They  grow."  Write  the  words  "  falls,"  sing,"  and 
"grow"  under  the  others.  Now  each  take  a  place 
at  the  blackboard,  and  write  the  names  of  all  the  acts 
you  can  think  of  that  boys  do.  The  class  write  — 
"boys  play,"  "boys  read,"  "boys  write,"  "boys  run," 
"  boys  eat,"  "boys  laugh,"  &c.,  &c.  The  actions  that 
girls,  horses,  dogs,  birds,  &c.,  perform  may  then  be 
written,  if  time  permit,  or  as&igned  for  future  lessons; 
and,  when  pupils  are  fully  prepared  to  understand  it, 
they  may  be  told  that  all  the  names  of  actions  are 
called  verbs.  In  further  lessons,  they  may  be  re 
quired  to  form  sentences  containing  particular  verbs 
and  to  point  out  the  verbs  in  sentences. 

EXERCISE  FIFTH. — Kinds  of  Verbs. — Adopting  the 
common  classification  of  Verbs,  lists  of  them  may 
be  written  upon  the  blackboard  as  follows  : — 

FIRST  LIST.  SECOND  LIST.  THIRD  LIST. 

Boys  play.  The  table  stands.  The  boy  was  whipped. 

Birds  fly.  The  book  lies.  The  soldier  is  wounded. 

Men  work.  The  curtains  hang.  The  horses  were  sold. 

Dogs  bark.  The  teacher  sits.  The  pitcher  was  broken. 

Pupils  having  learned  that  the  names  of  actions 
are  Verbs,  can  readily  point  out  the  Verbs  in  the 
first  list.  They  may  then  be  asked  to  point  out  the 
words  that  most  resemb^  Verbs  in  the  second  and 
third  lists.  This  done,  tney  may  be  shown  the  dif 
ferences  in  the  meaning  of  the  three  kinds  of  Verbs, 
and  learn  to  call  them  by  their  names  —  Active, 
Neuter,  and  Passive.  A  great  deal  of  practice  must 
be  allowed  pupils  in  naming  the  different  kin  is  of 


GRAMMAR.  251 

Verbs  as  they  occur  in  sentences,  and  in  composing 
sentences  containing  them. 

EXERCISE  SIXTH.  —  The  Properties  of  Verbs.  — 
"Whether  Verbs  are  the  names  of  actions  which  are 
perceptible,  or  of  those  which  are  imperceptible; 
whether  they  denote  actions  performed  or  actions 
endured,  they  must  have  reference  to  time  and  man 
ner.  Pupils  can  readily  give  orally  or  write  the 
names  of  actions  which  are  taking  place  at  the  pre 
sent  time ;  and  it  is  not  much  more  difficult  to 
suppose  that  the  same  actions  took  place  yesterday, 
or  will  take  place  to-morrow,  and  to  express  them 
accordingly.  After  full  practice  upon  the  Present, 
Past,  and  Future  Tenses,  the  pupils  may  be  made 
acquainted  with  those  subdivisions  of  them  thought 
to  be  necessary  by  Grammarians. 

The  teacher  can  write  lists  of  sentences  contain 
ing  Verbs  in  the  different  Modes,  and  instruct  his 
pupils  in  those  peculiarities  of  expression  upon 
which  distinctions  of  Mode  are  founded. 

Many  examples  of  Verbs  should  then  be  given, 
and  the  pupils  be  required  to  state  their  Tense  and 
Mode.  Sentences  can  also  be  constructed  containing 
Verbs  of  certain  given  Tenses  and  Modes. 

Verbs  denote  by  their  form  whether  actions  are 
performed  or  received  by  one  person  or  more,  or  by 
a  speaker,  a  person  or  thing  spoken  to,  or  a  person 
or  thing  spoken  of.  This  can  be  readily  exemplified 
;n  the  manner  previously  described. 

Pupils  should  not  only  be  required  to  commit  the 
Conjugation  of  verbs,  in  a  certain  order,  but  they 
should  be  expected  to  answer  questions  asked  mis- 


252  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

cellaneously  upon  it.  The  teacher  may  name  Modes, 
Tenses,  Numbers,  and  Persons,  and  demand  of  the 
pupils  forms  of  Verbs  that  answer  the  conditions, 
he  may  require  such  Verbs  to  be  embodied  in  sen- 
tences,  or  he  may  assign  the  sentences  and  engage  the 
pupils  in  distinguishing  and  classifying  the  Verbs. 

Exercises  similar  to  those  now  described  should 
be  given  in  respect  to  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  Ad 
verbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections; 
but  any  teacher  who  has  appreciated  the  spirit  of 
the  method  indicated  can  do  it  for  himself.  The 
spirit  and  form  of  these  Exercises  are  identical  with 
those  recommended  in  giving  lessons  on  objects. 
The  more  obscure  distinctions  in  Etymological 
Grammar  can  be  presented  in  the  same  way  to 
pupils  prepared  to  understand  them.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  these  exercises  do  not 
contemplate  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  the  Parts 
of  Speech. 

GRAMMAR  AS  A  SCIENCE. 

An  effort  will  now  be  made  to  point  out  the  pro 
per  method  of  teaching  Grammar  as  a  science. 

Our  thinking  is  regulated  by  laws.  The  science 
which  treats  of  these  laws  is  Logic.  Language  is 
the  verbal  expression  of  thought,  and  therefore  there 
must  be  a  close  analogy  between  the  laws  of  thought 
and  the  iaws  of  speech.  Hence  the  relationship 
which  exists  between  Grammar  and  Logic. 

We  think,  talk,  and  write  in  sentences.  Discourse 
is  made  up  of  sentences.  A  sentence  in  Grammar 
corresponds  to  the  unit  in  Mathematics  It  is  tho 


GRAMMAR.  2f>3 

least  integral  part  of  discourse,  as  words  are  bat  frac 
tional  parts  of  sentences.  The  first  step  in  teaching 
Grammar  therefore  is  to  communicate  to  pupils  an 
idea  of  a  sentence.  To  do  this  a  teacher  may  ask  his 
class  to  say  something  ahout  a  book,  a  horse,  a  bird; 
and  what  they  say  he  may  write  on  the  blackboard. 
These  expressions  and  others  like  them  they  may 
be  told  are  called  sentences.  The  division  of  their 
reading  lessons  into  sentences  may  be  pointed  out. 
In  this  manner  children  can  learn  to  know  simple 
sentences.  Further  practice  should  be  given  them 
in  writing  sentences  about  particular  things,  and  in 
detecting  combinations  of  words  that  do  not  form 
sentences.  A  sentence  is  a  form  of  words  contain 
ing  a  proposition ;  but  such  a  definition  would  be 
quite  out  of  place  at  this  stage  of  progress. 

AVhen  pupils  have  learned  to  know  simple  sen 
tences,  they  may  begin  the  work  of  analyzing  them, 
and  the  elements  thus  found  must  be  classified  and 
investigated.  The  system  thus  built  up  should  pre 
sent  the  principles  of  the  language  in  a  clear  and 
logical  manner.  A  sufficient  number  of  steps  in 
this  analysis  will  be  presented  to  indicate  to  the 
thoughtful  teacher  the  method  by  which  the  whole 
may  be  taught. 

The  Subject.  —  The  teacher  may  write  such  sen 
tences  upon  the  blackboard  as  birds  fly,  men  work, 
fire  burns,  rain  falls,  &c. ;  and  call  the  attention  of 
his  class  to  the  fact  that  in  each  of  these  sentences" 
there  is  a  word  which  represents  a  thing  of  which 
something  is  said.  The  pupils  may  then  point  out 
such  words  or  forms  of  words  in  these  and  nume- 
22 


254  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

rous  other  sentences,  and  learn  that  they  are  called 
subjects.  They  may  be  asked  to  name  things  of 
which  something  may  be  said,  and  to  tell  what  can 
be  said  to  run,  fly,  eat,  work,  &c. 

The  Predicate.  —  In  the  same  manner,  it  can  be 
shown  that  sentences  like  those  named  in  the  pre 
ceding  examples  contain  words  or  forms  of  words 
that  are  used  to  say  something  of  the  subject. 
These  are  called  Predicates.  Pupils  can  be  led  to 
point  them  out  in  such  sentences  and  in  others. 
It  is  well  also  to  give  them  practice  in  naming 
words  which  are  used  to  say  something  of  things, 
and  to  write  on  slate  or  blackboard  what  can  be 
said  of  boys,  girls,  horses,  fishes,  birds,  &c. 

In  miscellaneous  exercises  upon  Subjects  and  Pre 
dicates,  a  Subject  can  be  given  and  the  pupils  re 
quired  to  find  suitable  Predicates,  or  a  Predicate 
can  be  given  and  the  pupils  required  to  supply 
suitable  Subjects,  thus: 


a 


G5 


Play, 

Boys, 

Run, 

Girls, 

Walk, 

Horses, 

EWrlte, 

Required,  Dogs> 
Birds, 

Read, 

Cattle, 

Talk, 

Men, 

Laugh,  &c. 

Women,  &c. 

When  able  to  point  out  the  Subject  and  Predicate 
in  sentences,  pupils  may  be  told  that  the  two  taken 
together  constitute  a  Proposition,  and  then  be 
allowed  to  point  out  and  to  construct  Propositions. 


GRAMMAR.  255 

Kinds  of  Subjects. — The  attention  of  the  pupil 
should  be  called  to  lists  of  sentences  printed  in  his 
Grammar-hook  or  written  on  the  blackboard  like 
the  following :  John  studies ;  he  studies ;  to  study  is 
right;  that  he  studies  is  certain.  When  fully  com 
prehending  the  different  kinds  of  Subjects,  he  may 
be  told  that  the  name  of  the  first  kind  of  Subject 
is  Noun;  of  the  second,  Pronoun;  of  the  third, 
Phrase ;  and  of  the  fourth,  Clause.  Finally,  he  must 
be  allowed  to  point  out  the  different  kinds  of 
Subjects  in  numerous  examples,  and  to  construct 
sentences  containing  any  required  form  of  Subject. 

If  the  teacher  deem  it  proper,  his  pupils  may  now 
learn  the  nature  of  the  Noun  and  Pronoun,  their 
kinds  and  their  properties.  The  manner  of  doing 
this  has  already  been  explained.  The  Phrase  and 
Clause  must  be  treated  of  when  the  pupil  is  prepared 
to  understand  them. 

Kinds  of  Predicates.  —  The  kinds  of  Predicates 

can  be  taught  in  essentially  the  same  manner  as 
kinds  of  Subjects.  The  teacher  must  first  present 
such  sentences  as:  boys  learn;  they  are  to  learn; 
Spring  is  pleasant;  it  is  as  I  told  him.  It  is  unneces 
sary  to  make  more  than  two  kinds  of  Predicates : 
first,  the  Verb  simply ;  and,  second,  the  Verb  with 
some  added  word,  phrase  or  clause.  The  nature 
of  the  Copula  may  be  explained.  Much  practice 
in  pointing  out  and  classifying  Predicates,  in  sen 
tences,  and  in  constructing  sentences  to  contain 
Predicates  of  a  particular  kind  cannot  be  dispensed 
with. 

If  not  done  before,  the  teacher  may  now  make 


256  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

his  pupils  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  Verb, 
its  kinds,  and  the  properties  which  belong  to  it. 

To  the  extent  of  the  knowledge  now  acquired, 
pupils  may  engage  with  great  profit  in  the  exercises, 
beautiful  when  combined,  of  Analysis  and  Parsing. 
Numerous  miscellaneous  sentences  must  be  provided 
for  the  purpose. 

Pupils  may  be  taught  also  that  Pronouns,  when 
used  as  Subjects,  are  in  the  Nominative  Case,  and 
have  a  particular  form,  and  that  Nouns  are  said  to 
be  in  the  same  Case  when  used  in  the  same  way. 
Verbs  also  agree  with  their  subjects  in  Number 
and  Person.  Many  sentences  violating  these  princi 
ples  may  be  submitted  to  the  pupils  for  correction. 

Adjective  Elements. — A  word  or  a  form  of  words 
used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  the  Subject  is  called 
an  Adjective  Element.  The  same  name  is  applied 
to  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  which  modify 
Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  whatever  relation  they 
may  be  placed.  The  teacher  should  begin  his  in 
struction  by  calling  the  attention  of  his  class  to  sen 
tences  in  which  the  Subject  is  modified  by  simple 
Adjectives,  as:  good  boys  study ;  pretty  flowers  grow, 
&c.  When  they  fully  understand  the  nature  of  the 
Adjective  Modification,  it  will  not  be  very  difficult 
to  lead  them  to  see  the  words  and  forms  of  words 
that  perform  similar  offices  in  such  sentences  as  fol 
low:  1m  book  is  lost;  James,  the  carpenter,  built  the 
house;  Johns  finger  is  hurt;  a  book  of  poems  is  on  the 
table;  the  boy  who  did  not  know  his  lesson  is  detained 
after  school.  This  done,  and  all  that  remains  neces 
sary  is  to  allow  full  opportunity  for  practice  in  point- 


GRAMMAR.  257 

mg  out  these  elements  in  sentences  and  constructing 
sentences  containing  them.  Adjective  elements 
admit  division  into  classes ;  but  it  requires  the  ap 
plication  of  no  special  methods  to  teach  them. 
Rules  of  Syntax  relating  to  the  correct  use  of  the 
Adjective  and  Adjective  element  may  now  be  given, 
and  examples  of  sentences  in  which  this  part  of 
speech  is  incorrectly  used,  may  be  assigned  for 
correction. 

Adverbial  Elements. — A  word  or  a  form  of  words 
used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  the  Predicate  may 
be  called  an  Adverbial  Element.  Adverbial  Ele 
ments  should  be  classified  and  taught  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Adjective  Element;  and  repetition  is 
deemed  unnecessary.  Rules  for  the  construction  of 
Adverbial  Elements  must  not  he  overlooked. 

Nothing  special  need  be  said  in  reference  to 
teaching  the  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and  Interjection, 
as  the  offices  they  severally  perform  in  sentences 
are  easily  detected,  and  readily  illustrated. 

All  that  has  been  said  is  intended  to  apply  to  sim 
ple  Declarative  sentences.  At  the  proper  time, 
other  forms  of  sentences  must  be  presented  to  the 
pupil,  and  he  must  be  taught  to  trace  their  relations 
to  the  Declarative  form.  Phrases  and  Clauses  must 
be  carefully  studied.  The  close  analysis  of  Complex 
and  Compound  Sentences,  and  the  classification  of 
the  elements  thus  found,  the  discussion  of  the  idioms 
of  oar  language,  the  changes  in  construction  it  has 
undergone,  the  relationship  of  thought  and  its  ex- 
pression  in  words,  general  and  special  Philological 
22* 


258  INSTKUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

laws,  must  complete  a  full  course  of  instruction  in 
Grammar. 

This  discussion  will  be  concluded  with  a  summary 
of  the  general  principles  by  which  the  teaching  of 
Grammar  should  be  governed,  and  which  has  guided 
thp.  preceding  discussion. 

1st.  All  Grammatical  principles  or  rules  should 
be  deduced  directly  from  sentences,  or  proven  by 
reference  to  them. 

2d.  The  pupil  should  begin  the  study  of  Gram 
mar  by  analyzing  the  simplest  forms  of  simple  sen 
tences,  and  then  proceed  by  safe  gradations  from 
the  easy  to  the  difficult.  A  sentence  admits  of  a 
logical  discussion  only  by  descending  from  the  gen 
eral  to  the  particular.  A  classification  of  sentences 
ascends  from  species  to  genera. 

3d.  No  definition  or  rule  should  be  given  that 
presupposes  knowledge  that  the  pupil  does  not  pos 
sess.  The  whole  system  should  be  logically  con 
nected,  and  introduce  the  pupil  to  new  principles 
just  at  the  time  he  needs,  and  is  prepared  to  under 
stand  them. 

4th.  Rules  of  construction  and  government,  with 
examples  in  False  Syntax,  should  be  taught  in  con 
nection  with  the  sentences  or  elements  of  sentences 
to  which  they  relate.  This  principle,  logically 
necessary,  will  be  found  of  considerable  practical 
advantage. 

5th.  The  Analysis  of  a  sentence  consists  in  find 
ing  its  elements,  or  in  reducing  it  to  the  Parts  of 
Speech,  of  which  it  is  composed.  Parsing  consists 
in  finding  out  these  Parts  of  Speech  and  determining 
their  properties  and  relations.  Both  should  be  com- 


RHETORIC.  259 

bined,  as  is  the  case  in  similar  operations  in  other 
sciences.  The  Botanist  analyzes  a  plant,  and  then 
names  and  describes  its  several  parts.  The  Anato 
mist  dissects  a  subject,  and  then  characterizes  the 
organs  thus  brought  to  his  notice.  Grammar  can 
be  studied  successfully  in  no  other  way.  Parsing, 
without  a  preceding  analysis,  can  lead  but  to  a  very 
imperfect  knowledge  of  the  organic  structure  of 
sentences. 

6th.  Grammatical  knowledge  should  be  applied 
throughout  the  whole  course  in  the  construction  of 
sentences.  Pupils  should  be  allowed  ample  oppor 
tunity  of  framing  all  the  different  kinds  and  varie 
ties  of  sentences,  and  of  embodying  in  them,  all  the 
elements  of  sentences,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses, 
in  all  their  forms,  and  with  all  their  modifications. 

7th.  The  study  of  the  English  language  may  be 
made  to  yield  the  same  kind  of  culture  that  is 
derived  from  the  study  of  the  classical  languages  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  To  do  this,  several  standard 
authors,  or  selections  from  many  such  authors,  must 
be  subjected  to  a  critical  examination  as  to  the 
forms  of  sentences ;  the  location  of  the  elements  in 
sentences,  their  relations,  and  their  fitness  to  express 
the  thought  intended;  and  the  origin,  history,  and 
meaning  of  words. 

RHETORIC. 

It  is  by  no  means  easy  to  define  the  limits  of  the 
study  of  Rhetoric,  or  to  fix  its  position  among  the 
sciences.  There  seems  to  be  no  general  agreement 
among  writers  respecting  the  ground  which  it  should 
occupy . 


260  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

Logic  treats  of  the  laws  of  thought.  These  laws 
necessarily  condition  language.  Grammar  investi 
gates  them  as  they  occur  in  sentences.  But  as  all 
discourse  is  subject  to  logical  conditions,  there  is 
room  for  a  science  which  may  he  called  the  Science 
of  discourse.  Rhetoric,  however,  not  only  treats  of 
the  laws  of  thought  as  they  appear  in  discourse,  but 
likewise  includes  an  application  of  the  laws  of  taste. 
It  is  based  upon  the  science  of  Logic,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  ^Esthetics,  on  the  other.  It  is  also  closely 
related  to  Grammar. 

Some  writers  deny  to  Rhetoric  the  rank  of  a  sci 
ence  ;  but  since,  in  addition  to  the  principles  it 
embodies,  that  are  found  to  grow  out  of  the  rela 
tions  which  the  different  parts  of  discourse  sustain 
to  one  another,  its  rules  are  the  generalizations 
of  what  experience  has  shown  to  be  most  effec 
tive  and  pleasing  in  speaking  and  writing,  it  may, 
at  least,  as  justly  claim  that  rank  as  any  Inductive 
Science. 

It  would  not  be  proper  in  this  connection  to  speak 
of  methods  of  teaching  either  Logic  or  ^Esthetics, 
notwithstanding  they  constitute  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  superstructure  of  Rhetoric  is  erected. 
Rhetoric,  as  presented  in  our  books,  treats  of  the 
several  kinds  of  discourse,  the  qualities  which  expe 
rience  shows  to  be  necessary  in  good  writing  and 
speaking,  and  the  manner  of  arranging  ideas  and 
expressing  them  in  language.  Of  methods  of  teach 
ing  Rhetoric,  when  thus  considered,  it  is  my  pur 
pose  to  speak. 

1.  KINDS  OF  DISCOURSE. — It  will  be  convenient  to 


RHETORIC.  261 

consider  first,  discourse  as  classed  with  regard  to  form; 
and,  second,  as  classed  with  regard  to  matter. 

Classed  with  regard  to  form,  discouree  presents 
two  great  divisions,  viz. :  Prose  and  Poetry.  A  dif 
ference  in  form  may  not  be  the  only  difference 
between  prose  and  poetic  composition ;  but  it  is  the 
most  prominent. 

The  leading  divisions  of  prose  composition  are 
Orations,  Lectures,  Essays,  Theses,  Fictions,  Narratives, 
and  Letters.  Several  of  these  classes  of  composition 
admit  of  subdivisions. 

Thfe  leading  divisions  of  poetic  composition  are 
Epic,  Lyric,  Pastoral,  Dramatic,  Didactic,  and  Satiric 
Poetry.  The  form  of  Poetry  differs  also  according 
to  the  versification. 

Classed  with  regard  to  matter,  discourse  may  be 
Novel,  Witty,  Humorous,  Satirical,  Sublime,  and  Beau 
tiful.  Or  from  another  point  of  view,  discourse  is 
Explanatory,  Argumentative,  Pathetic,  or  Persuasive, 
according  as  it  narrates  or  describes,  argues,  appeals 
to  the  feelings,  or  attempts  to  move  the  will. 

The  teacher's  whole  duty  to  his  pupils,  in  acquaint 
ing  them  with  the  different  kinds  of  discourse,  may 
be  expressed  in  three  words,  describe,  define,  and 
illustrate.  Each  kind  of  discourse  must  be  carefully 
described,  the  general  terms  made  use  of  must  be 
defined,  and  the  whole  must  be  impressed  upon  the 
pupil's  mind  by  numerous,  appropriate  illustrations. 

2.  QUALITIES  WHICH  CHARACTERIZE  WELL  CON 
STRUCTED  DISCOURSE. — All  well  constructed  discourse 
must  be  characterized  by  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision, 
Perspicuity,  Strength,  Euphony,  Harmony,  and  Unity. 


262  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

In  teaching,  pupils  must  first  be  led  to  see  what 
is  meant  by  these  qualities.  Many  examples  of  each 
should  be  exhibited  to  them.  It  will  be  greatly  to 
their  advantage  if  extracts  from  authors,  faulty  in 
respect  to  these  qualities,  be  presented  to  them  for 
correction. 

3.  ARRANGEMENT  AND  STYLE  OF  DISCOURSE.  —  The 
invention  of  ideas,  or,  more  properly,  the  obtaining 
of  ideas,  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  Science  of 
Rhetoric.  Ideas  are  furnished  by  investigations 
concerning  the  subject-matter  of  other  sciences. 
Rhetoric  treats  only  of  the  arrangement  of  these 
ideas,  and  the  style  in  which  they  should  be 
expressed. 

By  the  arrangement  of  discourse  is  meant  the 
selection  of  suitable  matter,  and  its  proper  distribu 
tion.  Out  of  the  multitude  of  facts,  arguments, 
incidents,  illustrations,  which  may  be  presented  on 
a  particular  subject,  it  is  important  to  be  able  to 
judge  what  should  be  chosen,  and  in  what  order 
the  selected  matter  should  be  arranged.  Orations, 
according  to  the  method  of  the  ancients,  and  the 
practice  is  quite  similar  now,  were  divided,  into 
the  Exordium,  Narration,  Proposition,  Discussion,  and 
Peroration. 

In  other  kinds  of  discourse,  little  more  has  been 
done  by  Rhetoricians  than  to  name  the  principal 
parts,  viz. :  the  Introduction,  Body,  and  Conclusion. 
Pupils,  however,  must  not  be  allowed  to  conclude 
from  this  that  the  matter  of  books,  lectures,  poems, 
dramas,  fictions,  any  kind  of  composition,  indeed,  can 
be  thrown  together  in  confused  fragments.  No!  iiing 


RHETORIC.  263 

can  be  more  important  than  the  arrangement  of  the 
matter  of  discourse,  and  the  teacher  should  submit 
many  well-written  compositions  of  different  kinds 
to  his  pupils  that  they  may  carefully  analyze  them 
in  this  respect.  Not  that  pupils  should  be  trained 
to  a  slavish  imitation  of  any  author;  but  that 
they  may  see  in  a  concrete  form  what  has  proved 
itself  pleasing  and  effective,  and  profit  by  this  ex 
perience. 

By  style  is  meant  the  manner  of  expression  in 
language.  The  style  of  an  author  or  speaker  must 
vary  according  to  his  individual  peculiarities,  and 
the  circumstances  which  surround  him ;  but  Rheto 
ricians  have  made  several  divisions,  according  tc 
the  degree  of  ornament  used,  as  follows:  the  Dry, 
Plain,  Neat,  Elegant,  and  Florid;  according  to  the 
structure  of  the  sentences,  the  Simple  and  Labored, 
and  the  Concise  and  Diffuse  ;  and,  according  to  the 
effect  produced  upon  the  hearer,  the  Nervous  and 
Feeble.  Under  the  head  of  Style,  too,  may  be  dis 
cussed  the  various  kinds  of  Figures  used  in  dis 
course.  The  teacher  will  find  this  a  pleasant 
department  of  the  subject  to  present  to  his  pupils ; 
but  will  have  no  need  to  depart  from  the  method 
of  teaching  indicated  in  the  preceding  divisions  of 
the  subject. 

The  discussion  of  the  subject  will  be  concluded 
by  presenting  a  few  additional  observations. 

A  course  of  study  in  English  Literature  should 
follow  one  in  Rhetoric.  Selections  from  different 
authors  may  be  arranged  chronologically;  but  all 
should  be  closely  analyzed  with  reference  to  kind, 
qualities,  arrangement,  and  style.  Such  an  exercise 


26*  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

might  be  called  Khetorical  Parsing,  and  its  value 
if  well  conducted  would  be  very  great. 

Pupils  should  be  expected  to  observe  the  princi 
ples  of  Rhetoric  in  all  their  writing  and  speaking. 
It  is  taken  for  granted  that  Rhetoric  is  studied  not 
only  to  be  known  but  to  be  used.  Indeed,  it 
can  scarcely  be  fully  known  without  being  used 
Hence,  in  all  recitations,  the  attention  of  pupils 
should  be  called  to  faults  in  Rhetoric.  A  good  reci 
tation  consists  not  alone  in  giving  correctly  all  the 
facts  and  principles  of  the  lesson,  but  in  making  the 
most  appropriate  arrangement  of  them  and  express 
ing  them  in  the  best  language. 
,  In  learning  Rhetoric,  it  is  not  enough  for  pupils 
to  study  the  compositions  of  others ;  they  must  com 
pose  themselves.  They  must  be  patiently  trained 
to  exemplify  in  their  own  writing  and  speaking  all 
that  has  given  value  to  the  writing  and  speaking  of 
others.  The  end  of  the  study  of  Rhetoric  is  not 
chiefly  to  acquire  the  power  of  describing  how  skil 
ful  authors  write  and  speak,  but  to  be  able  to  write 
and  speak  well  ourselves ;  and  no  effective  teaching 
of  this  science  is  possible  without  allowing  ample 
opportunity  for  this  kind  of  practice. 

A  teacher  of  Rhetoric  ought  to  be  a  literary  ama 
teur.  Without  a  love  for  literature  himself  he  can 
not  make  his  pupils  love  it.  Without  literary  taste 
himself,  he  cannot  cultivate  the  literary  tastes  of 
his  pupils.  Ordinary  teaching  skill  may  suffice  to 
make  known  the  facts  and  rules  of  Rhetoric ;  but 
nature  does  not  open  her  beauties  here,  nor  any 
where,  unless  bidden  by  a  loving  heart. 


PHILOLOGY.  265 

PHILOLOGY. 

The  word  Philology  is  used  "here  to  denote  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  origin  and  growth  of 
language,  or,  in  other  words,  its  Natural  History. 
Up  to  this  point,  language  has  been  spoken  of  as  a 
ready-formed  instrument  with  which  pupils  desire 
to  become  acquainted,  and  methods  of  teaching  how 
to  read  and  understand  it  as  such  have  been  dis 
cussed.  But  a  few  remarks  will  show  that  it  may 
be  studied  from  another  stand-point. 

Language  is  itself  a  growth — a  product  evoked 
from  human  wants  and  evolved  from  human  reason. 
It  is  concrete  thought.  God  gave  man  reason  and 
the  power  of  speech,  and  he  produced  language. 
This  growth  of  words  was  governed  both  in  its 
origin  and  progress  by  certain  laws.  There  are 
principles  by  which  the  forms  and  rules  of  Grammar 
can  be  accounted  for.  A  language  is  not  learned 
when  we  know  its  declensions,  conjugations,  and 
laws  of  construction,  for  the  causes  of  these  may  be 
investigated.  Words  even  do  not  arbitrarily  change 
their  pronunciation,  orthography,  or  meaning.  New 
words  are  introduced  into  a  language,  old  ones 
drop  out  of  it,  and  causes  are  ever  at  work  chang 
ing  its  form  and  constructions,  and  the  mere  Gram 
marian  who  studies  language  as  it  is,  or  the  mere 
Historian,  who  notes  these  word-revolutions,  may 
remain  in  ignorance  of  the  subtle  forces  that 
ceaselessly  operate  to  adapt  human  speech  to  the 
condition  and  wants  of  men. 

Philology,  if  now  properly  apprehended,  has  the 
character  of  an  Historical  Science,  with  its  facts  and 
23 


266  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

its  philosophy,  and  as  such,  methods  of  teaching  it 
belong  elsewhere.  They  will  be  found  to  combine 
methods  of  teaching  applicable  to  all  the  other 
sciences. 

m.  LEARNING  TO  COMPOSE  IN  OUR  MOTHER-TONGUE. 

Composition  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  com 
bining  ideas  and  expressing  them  in  words ;  or  it 
may  be  called  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing.  It 
is  founded  upon  the  sciences  of  Grammar  and 
Rhetoric. 

Without  insisting  that  it  is  strictly  philosophical, 
the  following  division  of  our  intellectual  faculties 
may  be  made  :  those  by  which  we  gain  knowledge ; 
those  by  which  we  elaborate  it  into  systems ;  and 
those  by  which  what  we  know  is  reproduced.  The 
first  class  may  be  called  the  Perceptive  faculties; 
the  second,  the  Reflective  faculties ;  and  the  third, 
the  Expressive  faculties.  A  perfect  mind  would 
possess  the  power  of  obtaining  the  material  of 
knowledge,  the  power  of  working  up  this  material 
into  mind-products,  and  the  power  of  conveying 
these  mind-products  back  to  the  world  without,  iu 
co-equal  strength.  As  good  reasons,  therefore,  can 
be  given  for  the  cultivation  of  the  Expressive 
powers  —  the  powers  of  speech,  as  for  the  cultiva 
tion  of  any  other  class  of  powers  which  men  possess. 
Our  intellectual  light  must  not  be  hid  under  a 
bushel  any  more  than  our  moral  light.  Writing 
and  speaking  are  the  candle-sticks  by  which  this 
light  is  distributed  about  the  world. 

Besides,  so  closely  connected  is  our  mental  ma 
chinery  that  we  even  use  words  in  thinking,  auci 


COMPOSITION.  267 

facility  in  using  them  consequently  promotes  think 
ing. 

The  art  of  Composition  may  be  learned,  either  by 
imitating  the  speaking  and  writing  of  others,  or  by 
applying  the  rules  of  Grammar  and  Rhetoric.  Such 
a  knowledge  of  Composition  as  can  be  obtained  by  the 
first  method  may  be  called  Elementary  Composition; 
and  that  obtained  by  the  second,  Higher  Composition. 

1.  ELEMENTARY  COMPOSITION.  —  A  child  is  taking 
his  first  lessons  in  Composition  when  he  begins  to 
talk.  If  he  enjoy  the  opportunity  of  hearing  good 
language,  a  child  at  five  years  of  age,  will  possess 
a  large  fund  of  words,  he  can  construct  them  into 
sentences,  and  hold  intelligible  conversation  about 
objects  with  which  he  is  familiar.  If  at  that  age 
he  be  taught  the  written  symbols  which  represent 
words,  he  will  soon  learn  to  write  words,  sentences, 
and  little  compositions  about  things  he  has  seen. 
This  is  the  manner  in  which  the  teaching  of  Com 
position  should  be  commenced.  As  the  child 
enlarges  his  vocabulary  of  words,  notices  a  greater 
variety  of  sentences,  and  acquaints  himself  with 
more  numerous  objects,  his  ability  to  speak  and 
write  will  become  greater,  and  his  instruction  in 
Composition  should  be  adapted  to  his  increased 
capacity.  Up  to  the  age  of  ten  or  twelve,  instruc 
tion  in  Composition  should  consist  mainly  in  pre 
senting  pupils  suitable  models  of  speaking  and 
writing  for  imitation,  and  in  giving  them  ample 
opportunity  to  imitate  them.  Much  in  the  art  of 
Composition  can  be  learned  in  this  way  at  any  age, 
but  nearly  all  must  be  learned  in  this  way  in  child- 


268  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

hood.  Ill  teaching  Composition  to  children,  teachers 
ought  not  to  he  too  critical  —  ought  not  to  expect 
great  accuracy  or  much  elegance  in  expression. 
Their  principal  aim  should  be  to  evoke  linguistic 
power ;  and  when  the  power  exists,  it  is  time  to 
acquaint  them  with  the  niceties  of  Grammar  and 
Rhetoric.  You  must  have  the  stream,  before  you 
can  make  its  waters  play  about  your  grounds  or 
sparkle  in  your  fountains.  There  is  nothing  about 
which  we  are  more  sensitive  than  our  speaking  and 
writing,  and  teachers  may  do  great  harm  to  their 
young  pupils  by  expecting  too  much  from  them. 

Some  lessons,  well  calculated  to  aid  pupils  in  ex 
pressing  their  ideas  in  words,  were  described  in  the 
Chapter  relating  to  Elementary  Instruction,  and 
they  need  not  now  be  repeated.  It  is  enough  to 
indicate  a  few  classes  of  appropriate  exercises,  and 
the  intelligent  teacher  can  expand  them  to  any  de 
sirable  extent. 

First  Class  of  Exercises. — The  teacher  may  engage 
his  young  pupils  in  conversation  about  things  with 
respect  to  which  he  know^s  they  feel  an  interest; 
such  as,  horses,  whips,  fishing,  harvest-time,  sleigh- 
riding,  &c.,  &c.  The  discipline  in  language  obtained 
from  lessons  on  objects  as  previously  described  ia 
very  valuable. 

Second  Class  of  ^Exercises.  — Pupils  may  be  taught 
to  give  in  their  own  language  the  substance  of  their 
reading  lessons.  Attention  should  be  paid  in  all 
recitations  to  the  language  used.  All  erroneous  ex- 
pressions  must  be  carefully  corrected. 


COMPOSITION.  269 

TJnrd  Class  of  Exercises. — Pupils  may  be  required 
to  write  sentences  about  things;  as,  house,  table,  ball, 
&c.,  &c.  ;  or  a  word  or  several  words  can  be  given 
to  be  incorporated  into  sentences ;  as,  book,  beauti 
ful,  strange ;  school-girls  and  rain ;  boy,  mother,  and 
cake;  man,  axe,  and  wood,  &c.,  &c.  Some  good  ex 
ercises  may  be  found  in  Sheldon's  "Elementary 
Instruction,"  commencing  atpp.ge  220. 

Fourth  Class  of  Exercises.  —  The  teacher  may  pre 
sent  certain  forms  of  sentences  and  require  his  pu 
pils  to  imitate  them.  "Writing  from  dictation  with 
attention  to  forms  of  sentences,  punctuation,  capital 
letters,  &c.,  is  valuable.  Pupils  acquire  the  graces 
of  style  unconsciously  upon  reading  or  copying  well- 
written  composition. 

Fifth  Class  of  Exercises. — Lists  of  faulty  sentences 
may  be  kept  by  the  teacher,  and  now  and  then  pre 
sented  to  the  pupils  for  correction.  Quite  young 
children  can  be  taught  to  point  out  the  errors  in 
large  numbers  of  such  sentences.  Something  can 
also  be  done  in  this  way  to  train  pupils  to  habits  ol 
correct  speaking. 

Sixth  Class  of  Exercises.  —  The  teacher  may  read 
striking  narratives,  interesting  sketches,  or  lively 
descriptions,  and  require  his  pupils  to  reproduce 
them  in  their  own  language.  This  is  an  excellent 
exercise. 

Seventh  Class  of  Exercises. — At  the  age  of  eight  or 
nine  years,  the  teacher  may  begin  to  assign  subjects 

23* 


270  INSTRUCTION   IN   LANGUAGE. 

upon  winch  his  pupils  are  expected  to  write  original 
composition.  These  subjects  ought  to  be  simple, 
calculated  to  interest  the  writers,  and  to  furnish 
them  an  opportunity  of  telling  something  they  know 
as  well  as  of  finding  something  to  tell.  The  teacher 
should  assign  the  subject,  and  may  make  sugges 
tions  as  to  the  matter  and  form  of  the  composition. 
Every  child  can  say  something  about  snow,  flowers, 
birds,  hay-making^  hulking-corn,  gathering  nuts,  going  to 
school,  &c.,  &c. ;  if  not  about  progress,  government,  the 
grandeur  of  nature  s  works,  or  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 
The  preceding  exercises  will  convey  an  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  children  may  be  taught  to  com 
pose,  and  further  detail  is  deemed  unnecessary.  It 
may  be  remarked,  however,  that  children  should 
have  daily  practice  in  writing.  It  might,  perhaps, 
be  done  in  connection  with  reading  lessons.  No 
labored  essays  could  be  expected,  but  they  would 
acquire  the  power  of  thinking  and  of  saying  what 
they  think.  What  if  the  work  thus  done  be  crude 
and  wanting  in  order,  it  would  at  least  be  original, 
fresh,  and  childlike.  Great  harm  is  done  to  children 
by  giving  them  time  and  opportunity  to  resort  to 
books  and  to  older  persons  for  help  in  writing  com 
positions.  Let  them  learn  to  write,  as  they  talk, 
naturally.  It  is  time  those  unmeaning  forms  of 
words,  half  nonsense,  half  plagiarized,  called  compo 
sitions,  should  be  banished  from  the  school. 

2.  HIGHER  COMPOSITION.  —  The  principal  aim  of 
instruction  in  Elementary  Composition  is  to  bring 
pupils  to  notice  forms  of  expression,  and  to  imitate 
them  in  writing  freely  and  naturally  what  they 


COMPOSITION.  271 

think  and  feel.  Ability  to  compose  "having  been 
thus  acquired,  the  rules  of  Grammar  and  Rhetoric 
must  now  be  applied  to  induce  the  additional  power 
of  composing  correctly  and  elegantly ;  or  the  pupil 
must  enter  upon  a  course  of  study  in  language 
which  I  have  called  Higher  Composition.  This 
course  may  be  commenced  at  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  methods  of  teach 
ing  Grammar,  considered  the  best,  required  pupils 
to  exemplify  every  principle  learned,  in  the  construc 
tion  of  original  sentences.  Pupils  thus  taught, 
while  learning  the  science  of  Grammar,  will  learn 
the  art  of  Composition  so  far  as  Grammatical  prin 
ciples  aid  in  the  formation  of  sentences. 

It  will  also  be  remembered  that  in  treating  of 
Rhetoric,  it  was  stated  that  pupils  should  not  merely 
study  the  compositions  of  others,  but  that  they  must 
have  much  practice  in  writing  exercises  in  which 
they  should  be  required  to  observe  every  principle 
learned.  Such  exercises  would  furnish  a  fine  oppor 
tunity  of  learning  to  compose,  from  the  forming  of 
a  sentence  or  the  use  of  a  figure  to  the  construction 
of  an  oration  or  the  writing  of  a  poem. 

If  these  views  are  correct,  Grammar  and  Compo 
sition,  and  Rhetoric  and  Composition,  should  be 
taught  together;  and  every  suitable  Grammatical 
and  Rhetorical  lesson  should  be  followed  immedi 
ately  by  a  lesson  in  Composition.  The  manner  of 
doing  this  is  so  obvious  that  there  is  no  need  of 
further  illustration.  It  might  be  remarked,  how 
ever,  that  the  systematic  correction  of  sentences,  or 
more  general  discourse,  which  violates  the  rules  of 


272  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

Grammar  or  Rhetoric  belongs  appropriately  to 
Composition.  Science  systematizes  the  true,  art 
detects  the  false.  Many  pages  of  such  exercises  are 
not  too  much  to  furnish  pupils  with  the  practice 
they  need.  To  be  a  good  writer  one  must  be  a 
good  critic  both  of  his  own  productions,  and  the 
productions  of  others. 

Not  only  in  connection  with  Grammar  and  Rhet 
oric  should  Composition  be  studied,  but  such  in 
struction  should  be  given  in  connection  with  all 
studies.  Pupils  either  write  or  speak  when  they 
recite,  and  it  is  always  the  teacher's  duty  to  see  that 
they  speak  and  write  well.  Each  exercise  may  thus 
be  made  to  furnish  valuable  practice  in  writing  and 
speaking. 

Some  useful  exercises  may  be  mentioned  which 
are  not  usually  found  in  works  on  Gramma'r  or 
Rhetoric,  such  as  paraphrasing;  expressing  senti 
ments  in  various  forms ;  abridging  diffuse  com 
positions  and  amplifying  concise  ones ;  writing 
criticisms;  and  making  analyses  of  orations,  lectures, 
essays,  or  preparing  outlines  for  such  productions. 
Translating  from  a  foreign  language  into  our  own 
or  the  reverse,  gives  discipline  in  all  that  relates  to 
the  use  of  language,  hardly  to  be  obtained  in  any 
other  way.  Taste  in  composing  is  greatly  improved 
by  reading  good  books,  and  by  copying  well-written 
productions. 

In  addition  to  a  systematic  course  of  instruction 
in  Composition,  as  above  indicated,  teachers  wili 
find  it  advantageous  with  advanced  pupils,  at  least, 
to  have  at  stated  times  miscellaneous  exercises  in 
preparing  and  reading  or.ginal  compositions.  I 


COMPOSITION  273 

propose  to  answer  the  following  questions  concern 
ing  these  exercises:  At  what  times  should  such 
exercises  be  required  ?  Who  should  assign  the  sub 
jects?  What  should  be  the  nature  of  the  subjects 
assigned  ?  In  what  manner  shall  the  compositions 
be  corrected  ?  How  ought  the  recitation  to  be 
conducted  ? 

The  work  now  had  in  view  will  require  research 
and  labor  on  the  part  of  the  student.  It  is  not  an 
example  or  an  illustration  that  is  wanted,  but  a 
systematically  arranged  composition,  carefully  pre 
pared  both  as  regards  matter  and  manner.  If  pupils 
are  engaged  at  the  same  time  in  the  study  of  other 
branches,  and  have  proper  instruction  in  the  details 
of  composing  in  connection  with  their  Grammar 
and  Rhetoric  lessons,  the  special  exercises  now 
referred  to  cannot  very  well  be  performed  more 
frequently  than  once  a  week,  if  so  often. 

To  give  definite  direction  to  a  pupil's  thoughts, 
to  adapt  the  task  to  his  capacity  and  requirements, 
and  to  remove  from  him  as  far  as  possible  all  temp 
tation  to  plagiarize,  it  will  generally  be  found  best 
for  the  teacher  to  assign  the  subjects  for  composi 
tion,  even  to  classes  of  advanced  pupils. 

The  nature  of  the  subject  selected  for  a  composi 
tion  should  be  adapted  to  the  pupil's  capacity,  re 
quirements,  and  taste.  In  selecting  a  series  of 
subjects,  they  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to 
their  fitness  to  furnish  practice  in  composing  differ 
ent  kinds  of  discourse  and  using  different  varieties 
of  style.  They  should  be  such  also  as  would  be 
calculated  to  call  forth  the  knowledge  pupils  have, 
or  prompt  them  to  search  diligently  for  that  which 


274  INSTRUCTION    IN   LANGUAGE. 

they  have  not.  But  while  care  is  taken  to  train 
e^ual  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cramp.  An  ex 
uberant  flow  of  words  in  youth  is  a  better  indication 
of  success  in  writing  than  a  more  correct,  but  more 
formal,  style.  Let  the  imagination  of  the  young 
have  free  scope ;  do  not  cut  out  and  trim  on"  too 
much.  Value  most  of  all  a  spontaneous  out 
pouring  of  intellect,  or  a  spontaneous  out-grilling 
of  feeling. 

Teachers  must  inspect  the  compositions  written 
by  their  pupils ;  but  it  will  be  found  better  merely 
to  point  out  the  errors  they  may  discover  than  to 
correct  them.  If  pupils  are  required  to  correct 
their  own  errors,  they  will  be  more  careful  not  to 
make  them;  and,  besides,  the  principle  violated  will 
be  more  strongly  impressed  upon  their  minds. 
The  teacher  must  have  some  marks  to  indicate 
errors.  For  words  incorrectly  used  or  misspelled, 
wrong  punctuation,  or  errors  of  any  kind  involv 
ing  only  a  single  word  or  mark,  a  short,  perpen 
dicular  line  may  be  drawn  through  the  word  or 
mark  with  respect  to  which  the  error  occurs,  and 
attention  be  called  to  it  in  the  margin  by  an  jg^*. 
In  case  the  error  extends  to  several  words,  a  sen 
tence,  or  several  sentences,  the  whole  may  be  under 
scored,  and  attention  called  to  it  as  before.  More 
general  errors  as  to  style  and  arrangement  can  be 
best  corrected  at  the  recitation. 

How  ought  a  recitation  to  be  conducted  ?  Each 
pupil  should  write  the  errors  which  were  pointed 
out  by  the  teacher,  upon  the  blackboard,  together 
with  the  corrections  made  by  himself.  Each  pupil 
should  also  read  his  composition ;  and,  then,  hia 


THE   DEAD   LANGUAGES.  275 

whole  work  may  become  the  subject  of  criticism, 
first  by  the  class,  and  afterwards  by  the  teacher. 

II.  Instruction  in  the  Dead  Languages. 

The  only  Dead  Languages  that  are  taught  to  anv 
great  extent  in  our  schools  are  the  Latin  and  Greek, 
and  special  reference  will  be  had  in  this  Article  to 
methods  ol  teaching  these  languages,  although  the 
methods  indicated  will  be  found  applicable  to  all 
languages  belonging  to  the  same  class.  The  prom 
inent  place  the  languages  of  Greece  and  Home 
have  occupied  in  every  liberal  course  of  study  would 
be  a  sufficient  reason,  if  no  other  could  be  given, 
why  some  discussion  of  the  methods  of  teaching 
these  languages  should  be  introduced  into  a  work 
like  the  present  one. 

In  regard  to  the  benefits  derived  from  the  study 
of  the  Dead  Languages,  three  opinions  are  enter 
tained:  first,  that  all  other  studies  are  less  impor 
tant  than  that  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  that  conse 
quently  the  learning  of  these  languages  should 
occupy  the  most  prominent  place  and  the  greatest 
portion  of  time  in  every  liberal  course  of  study ; 
second,  that  the  time  now  spent  in  the  study  of  the 
Dead  Languages  might  be  employed  to  much  better 
purpose  in  obtaining  a  more  complete  knowledge 
of  our  own  language  and  the  various  sciences;  and, 
third,  that  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  ought  to 
occupy  an  important  place  in  a  course  of  study,  but 
that  school-time  should  be  fairly  proportioned  be 
tween  the  several  great  departments  of  instruction, 
and  that  Collegiate  and  University  honors  ought 
not  to  be  based  upon  proficiency  in  Latin  and  Greek 


276  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

any  more  than  upon  proficiency  in  other  branches  of 
learning. 

The  first  of  these  opinions  gives  undue  promi 
nence  to  the  study  of  the  Dead  Languages;  the 
second  wholly  discards  their  study ;  and  the  third 
occupies  a  middle  ground  between  the  two  extremes, 
and,  while  holding  that  Latin  and  Greek  are  not 
indispensable  in  a  liberal  course  of  study,  still  main 
tains  that  they  are  valuable  auxiliaries  in  the  work 
of  education. 

In  supporting  the  last  named  of  these  opinions, 
the  reasons  will  appear  why  it  is  considered  that 
both  of  the  other  opinions  are  erroneous.  That 
there  are  branches  of  instruction  other  than  those 
of  Latin  and  Greek  which  are  worthy  of  careful 
study,  will  be  generally  conceded  —  conceded  even 
by  those  whose  practice  does  not  correspond  with 
their  theory.  Mathematics,  Natural  Science,  Men- 
tal  Philosophy,  General  Literature,  History,  the 
Modern  Languages,  and  other  branches  of  learning 
should  not  be  omitted  from  a  comprehensive  course 
of  study,  and,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  proper  place, 
all  of  them  furnish  classes  of  facts  and  kinds  of 
culture  quite  different  from  those*  derived  from  the 
study  of  the  Dead  Languages.  Our  duties  as  men 
of  business  and  citizens  may  not  be  learned  as  wrell 
from  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  as  from  some 
other  studies,  and  this  end  of  utility  in  study  can 
not  be  ignored  in  teaching. 

The  cause  of  education,  however,  is  most  likely 
to  suffer  detriment  in  this  country,  at  this  time,  not 
from  those  who  favor  classical  studies  too  much, 
but  from  those  who  oppose  them  altogether.  The 


THE    DEAD    LANGUAGES.  277 

danger  is  not  now  great  anywhere  that  Latin  and 
Greek  will  absorb  too  much  of  the  pupil's  time  and 
attention ;  but  there  are  persons  everywhere  who 
attach  little  value  to  the  study  of  these  languages. 
As  might  be  expected  from  the  utilitarian  character 
of  our  people,  America  has  her  full  share  of  these 
advocates  for  the  abandonment  of  the  study  of  La 
tin  and  Greek,  and  the  substitution  in  their  place 
of  other  branches  which  are  supposed  to  bear  a 
closer  relation  to  the  work  of  the  office,  the  shop, 
and  the  farm.  In  such  circumstances,  it  may  be 
well  to  state  the  principal  advantages  which  may 
be  derived  from  the  study  of  the  classical  languages. 

1.  The  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  assists  in  the  study 
of    our   own    Language. — The    English    language, 
through  the  medium  of  the   Gorman-French    and 
otherwise,  derives  at  least  one-half  of  all  its  words 
from  the  Latin.     Almost  all  our  scientific  terms  arc 
of  Latin  or  Greek  origin,  and  no  one  who  is  unac 
quainted  with  these  languages,  can  read  a  work  on 
Law,  Medicine,  Theology,  Teaching,  or  upon  any 
science  or  art,  without  feeling  sadly  the  want  of  such 
knowledge.      The    close    analysis   of    an    English 
author,  such  as  Milton,  is  hardly  possible  for  one 
who  is  unacquainted  with  Latin.     The  finer  beauties 
and  more  hidden  laws  which  characterize  such  a 
work  can  be  fully  appreciated  only  by  the  classical 
scholar. 

2.  The  study  of  Latin  and    G-reeJc  assists  in  under 
standing  the  Character  of  the  People  who  spoke  them. — 
The  character  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  is  NFCS!] 

24 


278  INSTRUCTION"   IN   LANGUAGE. 

worthy  our  study.  Few  nations  have  done  so  much 
that  will  live  in  History.  The  language  of  a  people 
is  closely  related  to  its  thought.  In  its  language,  as 
in  a  mirror,  is  reflected  back  an  image  of  what  a 
nation  has  thought  and  felt.  Not  even  in  the  re 
mains  of  their  Sculpture  and  Painting,  not  even  in 
their  stupendous  ruins,  their  Parthenons  and  their 
Colosseums,  do  the  people  of  Greece  and  Rome 
represent  themselves  so  perfectly  as  in  the  Poems, 
the  Orations,  the  Histories  and  the  Dramas,  that 
have  been  preserved  from  the  general  destruction 
that  overwhelmed  them.  Their  noble  languages 

O  O 

are  the  richest  legacy  they  could  have  left  us,  for  in 
their  study  we  may  learn  to  sympathize  with  the 
master-spirits  of  the  past,  catch  some  of  their  inspira 
tion,  and  commune  with  the  sentiment  which  they 
embalmed  in  words  that  remain  fresh  midst  the 
lapse  of  centuries. 

3.  The  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  assists  in  ob 
taining  a  Knowledge  of  the  History  of  the  Romans  and 
Greeks. — There  were  both  Greek  and  Roman  His 
torians  of  great  celebrity.     No  translation  can  do 
them  justice.     They  must  be  read  to  be  appreciated. 
Besides,  what  these  classic  nations  of  antiquity  ac 
complished  best  appears  in  the  works  of  their  Poets, 
Orators,  Dramatists,  and  Philosophers ;  and  no  one 
has  ever  acquired  the  ability  to  read  these  books 
that  did  not  acknowledge  himself  amply  repaid  for 
all  his  time  and  trouble. 

4.  The   study  of  Latin   and  Greek  furnishes  very 
Intellectual  Discipline. — A  recitation  in  Latin  or 


THE    DEAD    LANGUAGES.  279 

Greek,  when  well  conducted,  gives  exercise  to  the 
memory,  the  judgment,  and  the  reason.  No  better 
culture  for  the  intellectual  faculties  can  be  found 
than  that  which  comes  from  making  nice  discrimina 
tions  between  the  meaning  of  words  ;  carefully  com 
paring  constructions  ;  earnestly  searching  the  under 
lying  thought  in  one  language  and  the  fit  words  to 
express  it  in  another ;  and  closely  studying  the 
modifications  and  relations  among  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses.  It  is  not  maintained  that  there  are  not 
other  valuable  means  of  intellectual  discipline.  The 
polished  Greek  himself  probably  obtained  his  cul 
ture  without  the  study  of  language  other  than  his 
own.  But  it  is  claimed  that  the  disciplinary  advan 
tages  of  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  have  stood 
the  test  of  centuries,  and  nothing  has  been  found 
that  can  be  safely  used  to  supersede  them.  The 
amount  of  practical  knowledge  gained  from  the 
study  of  the  Classics  may  not  be  equal  to  that  which 
can  be  gained  in  the  same  time  from  other  sources ; 
but  the  grand  end  of  study  is  to  increase  mental 
power,  to  give  general  efficiency ;  and  no  way  has 
been  found  better  suited  to  the  accomplishment  of 
this  end  than  the  thorough  study  of  the  noble 
languages  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

5.  The  study  of  Latin  and  G-reek  furnishes  fine 
Esthetic  Culture. — No  one  can  enter  into  the  spirit 
of  the  classic  authors  without  experiencing  a  refine 
ment  of  his  taste,  and  a  more  exalted  flow  of  im 
agination.  Relieved  of  whatever  might  have  been 
gross,  through  the  pages  of  Homer  and  Plato, 
and  Cicero,  the  classic  lands  ot  Greece  and 


280  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

Rome  reveal  themselves  to  the  student  as  pictures 
of  surpassing  beaut}7.  They  become  his  beau-ideals. 
He  rises  up  from  the  sphere  of  the  sensual  as  he 
contemplates  them,  and  revels  amid  the  ideal  beau 
ties  of  a  world  of  purer  thought  and  nobler  senti 
ment.  The  classic  scholar  is  known  by  his  nice 
discriminations,  his  exact  taste,  his  true  sense  of  the 
beautiful,  his  lofty  aspirations,  his  responsive  thrill 
of  emotion  in  witnessing  whatever  is  manly  and 
right  in  human  conduct. 

Several  different  methods  of  teaching  Latin  and 
Greek  have  been  practiced.  Before  attempting  a 
classification  or  an  exposition  of  them,  it  will  be 
well  to  determine  the  definite  ends  for  which  these 
languages  should  be  studied. 

Latin  and  Greek  are  not  now  studied  for  the  pur 
pose  of  acquiring  ability  to  speak  and  write  them. 
There  was  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe  when  books  were  generally 
written  in  Latin,  and  the  deliberations  of  ecclesi 
astical  councils  and  learned  assemblies  were  carried 
on  in  the  same  language ;  but  that  day  has  passed 
never  to  return.  There  were  during  the  same 
period,  and  perhaps  later,  institutions  of  learning 
that  required  their  students  to  dress  up  their  poor 
ideas  in  the  stately  flow  of  what  was  meant  for 
Ciceronian  eloquence.  Cicero's  forms  of  expression, 
his  very  words,  were  committed  with  great  labor 
and  then  servilely  imitated.  But  even  if  this  effort 
to  acquire  the  ability  to  speak  and  write  Latin  was 
proper  then,  it  is  so  no  longer.  Indeed,  it  is  gener 
ally  admitted  by  critics  that  no  other  than  a  Roman 


THE    DEAD   LANGUAGES.  281 

ever  mastered  the  Latin  language  so  perfectly  as  to 
speak  and  write  it  like  Cicero  or  Virgil ;  and  what 
Lipsius,  Scaliger,  and  Milton,  after  many  years  of 
study,  and  with  more  inducements  than  exist  at 
present,  failed  to  accomplish,  it  is  scarcely  worth 
while  for  others,  less  gifted,  and  enjoying  fewer 
advantages  for  such  study,  to  undertake.  Exer 
cises  in  Latin  and  Greek  composition  are  required 
wherever  these  languages  are  taught,  but  mainly 
for  the  purpose  of  fixing  in  the  pupil's  mind  Gram 
matical  forms  and  constructions.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  poems  and  orations  written  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  sometimes  delivered  at  our  college 
commencements,  are  at  best  but  poor  imitations. 
Besides,  if  ability  to  speak  and  write  Latin  and 
Greek  with  classic  elegance  could  be  acquired,  the 
time  and  labor  would  be  misspent.  The  Dead  Lan 
guages,  therefore,  are  not  studied  for  the  purpose 
of  acquiring  ability  to  speak  and  write  them. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  Latin  and  Greek  are 
studied,  is  to  be  able  to  read  them,  to  obtain  the 
rich  stores  of  knowledge  which  they  lock  up,  and 
to  secure  the  disciplinary  advantages  which  may  be 
derived  from  their  study.  To  accomplish  these 
ends,  spoken  and  written  exercises  may  be  used 
as  means,  but  not  as  ends  themselves. 

If  these  views  are  true,  it  follows  that  the  Dead 
Languages  must  be  taught  in  a  manner  quite  differ 
ent  from  that  applicable  to  Living  Foreign  Lan 
guages,  inasmuch  as  the  main  purpose  in  learning 
the  latter,  is  to  acquire  ability  to  sper.k  and  write 
them. 

With  a  distinct  object  in  view  which  is  intended 

24* 


282  INSTRUCTION   IN    LANGUAGE. 

to  be  accomplished  by  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
it  will  be  more  easy  to  classify  and  define  the 
methods  by  which  that  object  can  be  attained. 

With  respect  to  our  Mother-tongue,  we  first  learn 
to  speak  it,  next  we  acquire  the  power  to  read  it, 
and  finally  study  to  know  the  laws  which  govern 
its  forms  and  constructions.  Pupils  learning  a  Dead 
Language,  may  commence  at  any  one  of  these  points ; 
and,  hence,  there  may  be  three  general  methods  of 
teaching  such  a  language.  These  methods  may  be 
called,  respectively :  1st,  The  method  that  commences 
ly  teaching  pupils  to  speak  the  language;  2d,  The 
method  that  commences  by  teaching  pupils  to  read  the 
language;  and,  3d,  The  method  that  commences  by 
teaching  pupils  the  Grammar  of  the  language.  There 
have  been  practiced  many  particular  methods,  some 
times  named  after  the  teachers  who  used  them ;  but 
I  think  it  will  be  found  that  all  of  them  are  embraced 
in  the  preceding  classification. 

1.  The  Method  that  commences  by  teaching  Pupils  lo 
speak  Latin  or  Greek. — A  native  language  is  learned 
by  associating  certain  verbal  utterances  with  things 
or  ideas.  The  child  in  learning  to  talk  first  hears 
particular  names  applied  to  particular  things,  forms 
an  association  between  the  names  and  the  things, 
and  finally,  acquires  the  power  of  imitating  the 
names.  The  children  of  Rome  and  Greece  found 
no  more  difficulty  in  learning  to  speak  Latin  and 
Greek  than  English  children  do  in  learning  English. 
If  children  now  anywhere  could  hear  these  languages 
Bpoken,  they  could  readily  learn  them.  The  cele 
brated  Montaigne  had  a  private  tutor  who  spoke  no 


THE    DEAD    LANGUAGES.  283 

language  in  his  hearing  but  Latin,  and  he  learned 
to  speak  and  read  that  language  with  considerable 
facility  by  the  time  he  was  seven  years  of  age.  At 
the  present  day,  it  is  impracticable  to  study  the 
Dead  Languages  in  this  way ;  and,  if  otherwise,  it 
has  been  shown  elsewhere  that  it  would  require  the 
sacrifice  of  a  great  amount  of  time  and  labor  to  do  so. 

2.  The  Method  that  commences  ly  teaching  Pupils  to 
read  Latin  or  G-reek.  —  Some  teachers  have  taught 
their  pupils  to  read  the  Dead  Languages  by  having 
them  read,  first  words,  next  simple  sentences,  after 
wards  sentences  more  difficult,  and  finally  general 
discourse.  Of  course  the  meaning  of  the  words 
must  be  learned  either  from  the  teacher  or  the 
book.  This  is  substantially  the  method  by  which 
children  learn  to  read  their  vernacular  language ; 
and,  while  it  is  admitted  that  the  method  can  be 
applied  to  any  language,  it  is  denied  that  it  would 
furnish  that  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  nature 
of  the  language  studied,  and  that  higher  intellectual 
and  aesthetic  culture  which  is  the  main  end  of  classi 
cal  study.  If  it  be  said  that  a  knowledge  of  Latin 
or  Greek  Grammar  can  be  obtained  after  learning 

o 

to  read  those  languages,  it  may  be  replied  that 
in  such  a  case  the  reading  of  authors  must  be  very 
superficial,  a  second  reading  after  the  study  of  the 
Grammar  would  have  to  follow  the  first,  and  the 
whole  work  would  require  much  unnecessary  time 
and  labor. 

Some  teachers,  too,  instead  of  commencing  with 
words,  place  in  the  hands  of  their  pupils  an  easy, 
classical  author,  accompanied  with  a  literal,  inter- 


284  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

linear  translation,  and  expect  them  by  this  means 
to  learn  the  meaning  of  words,  the  construction  of 
sentences,  and  finally  the  sense  of  what  they  read. 
it  is  claimed  that  Hamilton  and  others  had  great 
success  in  teaching  Latin  according  to  this  method  ; 
but  it  is  evident  that  the  same  objections  apply  to 
it  as  to  the  preceding  method.  It  may  be  a  speedy 
way  of  acquiring  the  ability  to  read  a  language 
superficially,  but  it  cannot  be  the  best  method  of 
obtaining  a  thorough  knowledge  of  it. 

Othe*  teachers  select  sentences  from  which  par 
ticular  Grammatical  forms  or  principles  can  be  de 
duced,  teach  their  pupils  to  read  them,  and  make 
them  draw  the  required  inferences  and  learn  them 
in  the  form  usually  found  in  Grammar  books.  This 
method  is  Analytical,  and  as  applied  to  one's  native 
language,  the  best ;  but  in  regard  to  the  study  of 
the  Dead  Languages,  it  is  defective  in  supposing  the 
pupil  can  have  a  form  of  words  or  a  sentence  in  his 
mind  which  he  so  well  understands  as  to  be  able  to 
analyze  it.  A  Latin  or  a  Greek  sentence  is  at  first 
wholly  unintelligible  to  a  learner,  and  its  meaning 
can  only  be  determined  by  the  Lexicographic  and 
Grammatical  explanation  of  the  single  words  which 
compose  it.  The  meaning  of  each  word  in  a  sentence 
must  be  learned  separately,  and  then  in  its  relations 
to  the  other  words  with  which  it  is  used,  before 
a  clear  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  whole  can  be 
obtained.  In  teaching  a  language  spoken  by  the 
learners,  the  method  must  be  analytical;  but  in 
teaching  one  which  they  cannot  speak,  the  method 
must  be  at  first  synthetical.  A  teacher  of  Latin 
and  Greek  must  therefore  begin  with  words  ;  and 


THE    DEAD    LANGUAGES.  285 

ill  connection  with  an  explanation  of  their  meaning, 
he  will  find  it  greatly  promotive  of  his  object,  if  he 
acquaint  his  pupils  with  various  Etymological  forms 
which  distinguish  them  as  individual  words,  and  the 
various  Syntactical  laws  which  control  their  place 
and  relations  in  sentences.  When  ability  to  read  a 
Dead  Language  has  been  acquired,  no  exercise  can 
be  more  beneficial  than  the  analysis  of  sentences. 

3.    The  Method  that  commences  by  teaching  the  Latin 
or  Greek  G-rammar.  —  In  teaching*  according  to  this 

O  O 

method,  the  pupil  first  learns  the  meaning  and  forms 
of  simple  words  and  the  principles  of  Grammar 
which  have  been  found  by  preceding  analyses  of 
Latin  or  Greek  composition,  and  finally  applies  this 
knowledge  in  discovering  the  sense  and  beauty  of 
classic  authors.  This  process  is  similar  to  the  man 
ner  in  which  a  native  language  is  learned  in  com 
mencing  with  single  words  ;  but  it  differs  from  it 
wholly  in  commencing  with  words  which  represent 
Etymological  forms  and  Grammatical  principles. 
It  was  previously  remarked  that  a  person  might 
learn  to  read  any  language  without  a  knowledge  of 
its  Grammar ;  but  it  must  be  evident  to  any  one 
competent  to  judge  that  an  acquaintance  with  the 
forms  of  words  and  the  laws  of  construction  inci 
dent  to  such  languages  as  the  Latin  and  Greek, 
must  greatly  facilitate  the  work  of  understanding 
them.  It  is  my  opimon  therefore  that  the  first  book 
which  should  be  placed  in  a  pupil's  hands  who  de 
sires  to  study  a  Dead  Language  is  the  Grammar  — 
not  an  analytical  Grammar  as  if  the  pupil  already 
understood  the  meaning  of  sentences  and  was  pre- 


286  INSTKUCTION    IN   LANGUAGE. 

pared  to  gather  facts  and  to  infer  principles,  from 
them,  but  a  Synthetical  Grammar  in  which  he 
will  first  find  definitions,  paradigms,  and  rules,  and 
afterwards  learn  their  significance  in  discourse. 

It  wras  formerly  customary  to  require  pupils  to 
commit  the  whole  Grammar,  before  being  led  to 
make  an  application  of  any  of  its  principles,  or 
being  taught  to  observe  how  they  might  be  illus 
trated  by  reference  to  sentences.  Nothing  could  be 
less  interesting  to  a  child  than  the  task  of  learning 
the  senseless  jargon  (to  him)  of  hie — lidec — hoc  and 
o — ?j — TO  ;  and  no  word  here  said  must  be  construed 
to  mean  anything  in  favor  of  such  a  method.  I 
think,  indeed,  that  the  pupil  should  commence  his 
study  of  the  Dead  Languages  with  the  Grammar, 
but  not  with  a  Grammar  book  that  contains  nothing 
but  dry  forms  and  abstract  principles. 

The  method  of  Studying  Latin  and  Greek  now 
presented,  requires  the  pupil  to  commit  Declensions, 
Conjugations,  and  rules;  but  it  contemplates  the 
accompanying  of  all  such  lessons  with  practical 
exercises  calculated  to  enforce  and  enliven  them.  In 
detail,  the  proposed  lessons  might  consist,  first,  of 
the  forms  or  rules  to  be  committed  to  memory; 
second,  of  sentences  in  which  these  forms  or  rules 
are  illustrated;  third,  other  sentences  in  which  the 
principle  of  the  lesson  is  violated ;  fourth,  the  con 
struction  of  original  sentences  that  conform  to  the 
principles  of  the  lesson.  At  the  recitation,  these 
exercises  should  be  properly  varied,  and  given  some 
times  orally,  and  sometimes  in  writing.  Numerous 
miscellaneous  exercises,  intended  for  review,  should 
be  distributed  among  them.  With  a  book  arranged 


THE    DEAD   LANGUAGES.  287 

upon  a  plan  like  this,  an  ingenious  teacher  cannot 
fail  to  make  the  study  of  the  Grammar  of  any  of 
the  Dead  Languages  interesting. 

What  has  been  just  said  has  reference  to  methods 
of  teaching  the  elements  of  the  Dead  Languages. 
There  is,  of  course,  a  higher  department  of  Gram 
mar  which  investigates  the  changes  these  languages 
have  undergone,  accounts  for  their  forms,  and 
reveals  the  great  Philological  laws  which  govern 
their  constructions.  Into  this  inviting  field,  the 
student,  who  is  ahle,  may  enter ;  and  it  will  be 
found  that,  if  the  Grammar  is  the  proper  book  with 
which  to  begin  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  Dead 
Languages,  it  is  also  the  proper  book  with  which  to 
end  it. 

Having  completed  an  elementary  course  in  the 
Grammar,  the  pupil  is  prepared,  in  connection  with 
further  study  of  the  Grammar,  to  commence  the 
reading  of  authors  in  the  language  studied.  Of 
these  the  teacher  must  make  a  judicious  selection. 
Those  works  should  be  chosen  which  are  the  purest 
in  sentiment,  the  most  varied  in  style,  and  the  best 
calculated  to  give  culture  to  the  taste,  and  impart 
-information  concerning  the  times  in  which  they 
were  produced.  A  student  may  read  the  whole 
work  of  an  author  or  a  part  of  it;  but  his  course  of 
reading  should  leave  him  ignorant  of  no  writer  who 
is  distinguished  in  classic  literature. 

O 

Some  general  directions  may  be  given  for  conduct 
ing  a  recitation  in  the  reading  of  a  classical  author. 

1.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  give  both  free 
and  literal  translations ;  the  purpose  of  the  latter 


288  INSTRUCTION   IN  LANGUAGE. 

being  to  obtain  a  clear  insight  into  the  sense  of  what 
is  read,  and  that  of  the  former  to  find  appropriate 
English  expressions  for  it.  The  practice  of  trans 
lating  selections  from  Latin  or  Greek  authors  into 
English,  and  afterwards  translating  the  same  back 
again  into  Latin  or  Greek  without  reference  to  the 
original  text,  is  very  valuable.  By  means  of  this 
kind  of  double  translation,  Ascham  says,  Queen 
Elizabeth  became  one  of  the  best  Latin  and  Greek 
scholars  of  the  age  in  which  she  lived. 

2.  Pupils    should   be    required   to   explain    the 
Etymological,  Syntactical,  Prosodiacal,  Rhetorical, 
and  Logical  principles  contained  in  the  text.    From 
this  source  comes  much  of  the  most  valuable  cul 
ture  that  is  furnished  by  the  study  of  the  Dead 
Languages.     The   pupil   must  prepare  his  lessons 
with  Grammars  and  Dictionaries  open  before  him, 
and  the  teacher  must  lead  him  to  see  the  great  laws 
that  regulate  general  human  speech  as  they  appear 
in  the  particular  language  studied. 

3.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  account  for  the 
Geographical,    Scientific,   Historical,   Mythological, 
and   other  like  allusions  and  references  that  may 
occur  in  the  lessons  recited.     Most  pupils  studying 
the  Dead  Languages  soon  acquire  a  deep  interest  in 
matter  of  this   kind,  and   books   containing   such 
information  should  be  to  them  a  vade  mecum. 

A  few  additional  suggestions  will  be  made. 
Constant  use  should  be  made  of  the  blackboard 
in  teaching  the  Dead   Languages.     This  form  of 


LIVING    FOREIGN    LANGUAGES.  289 

recitation  is  especially  valuable  while  pupils  are 
engaged  in  the  study  of  their  Grammar. 

As  one  of  the  great  objects  in  studying  the  Dead 
Languages  is  the  discipline  of  the  intellect  and  taste, 
I  have  found  class  criticism,  judiciously  managed, 
an  excellent  means  of  promoting  it. 

The  teacher  himself  must  be  a  good  classical 
scholar,  if  he  would  make  good  classical  scholars. 

Teachers  of  the  Dead  Languages,  who  love  their 
work,  will  have  little  difficulty  in  inspiring  their 
pupils  with  a  similar  love. 

HI.  Instruction  in  Living  Foreign  Languages. 

The  interests  of  commerce,  correspondence,  tra 
vel,  literature,  and  science  render  a  knowledge  of 
several  of  the  languages  of  Europe  generally  desira 
ble.  Besides,  it  is  evident  that  the  study  of  any 
language  may  be  made  ads^antageous  in  a  dis 
ciplinary  point  of  view.  The  new  thoughts,  the 
varied  modes  of  expression,  the  nice  distinctions  in 
the  meaning  of  words  and  sentences,  the  enlarged 
vocabulary,  the  comprehensive  linguistic  laws,  the 
rich  literary  stores  accumulated  in  other  lands,  with 
which  a  student  of  Foreign  Lan^uasres  becomes 

o  o       o 

acquainted  cannot  but  be  valuable  to  him. 

For  these  reasons,  it  is  well  to  consider  in  this 
place  the  methods  of  teaching  Living  Foreign 
Languages;  but  the  subject  will  not  require  a 
lengthy  discussion. 

A  few  persons  study  French,  German,  and  other 
European  languages  for  their  literary  and  discip 
linary  advantages.  For  sucn  persons,  methods  of 
teaching  might  be  substantially  the  same  as  those 
^ 


290  INSTRUCTION    IN    LANGUAGE. 

just  described  as  most  appropriate  in  the  case  of  the 
Dead  Languages.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the  Ety 
mological  forms  of  French  and  German  are  less 
complicated  than  are  those  of  Latin  and  Greek,  an 
effort  to  learn  to  read  the  former  without  a  know 
ledge  of  their  Grammar,  would  be  attended  with 
more  success  than  a  similar  effort  in  regard  to  the 
latter. 

The  most  prominent  object  for  which  Living 
Foreign  Languages  are  studied  is  to  acquiie  the 
ability  to  speak,  to  read,  and  to  write  them.  With 
these  ends  in  view,  no  better  way  of  learning  them 
is  possible  than  that  by  which  we  iearn  to  speak, 
read,  and  write  our  own  language.  This  is  the 
natural  method.  We  learn  to  speak  by  hearing 
others  speak — by  associating  certain  verbal  utter 
ances  with  certain  ideas  and  imitating  them.  Next 
we  learn  the  characters  which  represent  woi  ds,  and 
acquire  the  power  of  making  them  ourselves. 
When  we  know  how  to  speak,  read,  and  write  our 
native  language,  we  may  commence  the  study  of  its 
Grammar.  If  circumstances  favor,  I  am  well  con 
vinced  that  this  is  the  best  way  of  learning  a  Living 
Foreign  Language.  Let  the  pupil  be  placed  where 
he  can  hear  the  language  it  is  designed  that  he 
should  learn,  spoken— spoken  in  its  purity,  let  him 
hear  no  other,  and  he  will  soon  learn  to  speak  it 
himself.  This  done,  he  can  acquire  the  ability  to 
read  and  write  it  as  he  did  his  native  tongue,  and, 
when  prepared,  he  can  engage  in  the  study  of  its 
Grammar.  In  writing  this,  I  have  in  my  mind 
children  who  are  from  three  to  ten  years  of  age ; 
and  it  might  be  remarked  that  foreign  languages 


LIVING   FOREIGN    LANGUAGES.  291 

are  learned  at  this  age  with  great  rapidity.  If  pupils 
are  older  than  the  age  thought  of,  it  might  not  be 
improper  to  combine  the  exercises  in  speaking,  read 
ing,  writing,  and  Grammar. 

It  is  not  often,  however,  that  the  circumstances 
above  supposed  —  circumstances  in  which  the  pupil 
can  hear  spoken  in  its  purity  the  language  he  wishes 
to  learn,  are  found  to  surround  a  pupil.  They  are 
seldom  enjoyed  by  any  who  cannot  pursue  their 
studies  in  a  foreign  land,  and  hence  some  modifica 
tion  of  this  method  must  be  adopted  that  will  render 
it  better  suited  to  the  condition  of  such  as  study 
under  less  favorable  circumstances. 

The  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  language  cannot 
be  correctly  learned  from  any  one  who  does  not 
pronounce  correctly,  nor  can  it  be  learned  from  a 
book,  however  carefully  notated.  A  person  well 
acquainted  with  the  elementary  sounds  of  our  own 
language,  however,  can  use  this  knowledge  to  con 
siderable  advantage  in  learning  another.  French 
and  German  for  example,  have  very  few  sounds 
which  are  not  found  in  English.  If  such  a  pupil 
first  learn  those  sounds  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
lano-iage  he  desires  to  master,  and  then  use  a  care- 
full}  notated  book  or  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  he 
can  attain  such  a  pronunciation  as  may  possibly 
suffice  to  make  him  understood.  But  to  speak  a 
language  correctly,  something  more  is  necessary 
than  to  utter  its  elementary  sounds;  there  is  a  tone 
--a  manner  of  speaking,  that  can  never  be  acquired 
except  from  a  correct  model. 

Where  foreign  languages  are  often  taught  by 
English  teachers,  as  they  are  in  this  country,  and 


292  INSTRUCTION   IN  LANGUAGES. 

where  pupils  use  their  native  language  always,  ex 
cept  when  preparing  or  reciting  their  lessons,  the 
systems  of  such  authors  as  OllendorfF,  Woodbury, 
and  Fasquelle  are  doubtless  the  best  that  can  be 
used.  After  having  given  some  directions  in  regard 
to  pronunciation,  these  writers  begin  their  lessons 
with  brief,  conversational  exercises  about  the  most 
familiar  things,  and  follow  them  with  other  exercises 
in  which  practice  is  given  in  reading  and  writing 
such  words  and  sentences  as  may  have  been  intro 
duced  into  the  preceding  conversational  exercise. 
Each  lesson  takes  for  granted  a  knowledge  of  the 
lessons  which  preceded  it,  and  new  \vords  and  new 
constructions  are  presented  for  practice  in  speaking, 
reading,  and  writing.  Grammatical  forms  and  prin 
ciples  ire  introduced  into  all  the  exercises  when 
ever  5*  is  thought  that  benefit  can  be  derived  from 
them  A  course  of  lessons,  arranged  according  to 
this  method,  will  comprehend  a  well-graded  series 
of  exercises  in  speaking,  reading,  and  writing  a 
language,  conducted  with  reference  to  its  Grammar. 

This  method  differs  from  that  by  which  a  person 
learns  his  mother-tongue  in  several  particulars  —  in 
the  use  of  books  when  teaching  pupils  to  speak  the 
language,  and  in  teaching  pupils  to  read  and  write 
the  language  and  learn  its  Grammar  while  learning 
to  speak  it.  For  children  not  old  enough  to  under- 
Btand  Grammar,  it  is  not  well  adapted;  but  in  the 
hands  of  a  teacher  who  can  present  a  correct  model 
of  pronunciation,  it  is  perhaps  the  only  method  well 
suited  to  the  teaching  of  a  foreign  language  iu 
American  schools. 

Pupils  may  learn  to  read  a  foreign  language  by 


LIVING  FOREIGN    LANGUAGES.  293 

the  method  of  interlinear  translation ;  but  the  know 
ledge  of  a  language  thus  acquired  must  be  very 
superficial  It  is  a  great  error  to  suppose  that  a 
knowledge  of  any  language  can  be  acquired  in  a 
short  time  or  in  a  few  lessons.  Possibly  some  easy 
authors  might  be  read  profitably  by  means  of  inter 
linear  translations  before  commencing  a  series  of 
such  exercises  as  those  of  OllendorfF.  A  good  teacher 
might  impart  in  this  way  a  knowledge  of  pronuncia 
tion,  the  meaning  of  many  words,  and  some  idea  of 
construction,  all  of  which  would  be  very  advanta 
geous  in  learning  the  Grammar. 

Pupils  might  begin  the  study  of  a  language  like 
French  or  German  by  commencing  with  its  Gram 
mar  ;  but  the  teacher  will  find  it  very  difficult  to 
interest  pupils  in  the  study  of  the  abstract  Grammar 
of  a  foreign  language,  and,  besides,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  acquire  the  ability  to  speak  a  language 
in  this  manner. 

After  a  course  of  elementary  instruction  in  which 
pupils  have  learned  to  speak,  read,  and  write  a 
foreign  language  with  some  facility,  and  possess  a 
good  knowledge  of  its  Grammar,  they  may  com 
mence  with  profit  the  reading  of  authors.  Easy 
authors  must  be  first  chosen,  and  afterwards  those 
more  difficult.  Translations  should  be  required  and 
questions  be  asked  upon  the  subject-matter  in  much 
the  same  way  as  has  already  been  described  in 
speaking  of  methods  of  teaching  the  Dead  Lan 
guages. 

25* 


CHAPTEE    III. 

INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    FORMAL     SCIENCES. 

THE  Forma]  Sciences  treat  of  the  necessary  form* 
in  which  truth  presents  itself  or  by  which  truth  is 
conceived.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes,  Mathematics  and  Logic. 

Mathematics  is  the  science  of  pure  quantity.  Ita 
principles  have  no  dependence  upon  material  things. 
All  its  calculations  and  demonstrations  may  be  made 
without  reference  to  them.  But  its  formulae  express 
the  conditions  under  which  matter  exists  in  space 
and  time. 

Logic  is  the  science  of  pure  thought.  Its  prin 
ciples  are  not  derived  from  the  manner  in  which 
thinking  is  done,  but  they  show  how  it  must  be  done. 
Its  formulae  express  the  relations  between  the  several 
paits  of  the  thinking  process. 

The  sciences  of  Mathematics  and  Logic  are 
called  Formal  Sciences,  because  they  relate  to  truth 
only  in  its  abstract  or  ideal  condition.  The  prin 
ciples  of  both  would  be  true  if  matter  had  no 
existence. 

The  following  quotation  from  Sir  William  Ham 
ilton  will  show  that  the  object-matter  of  the  Formal 
Sciences  is  exhausted  by  Mathematics  and  Logic. 
He  says,  " Formal  Knowledge  is  of  two  kinds;  for 
it  regards  either  the  conditions  of  the  Elaborative 

(294; 


THE   FORMAL    SCIENCES    IN    GENERAL.        295 

Faculty— the  Faculty  of  Thought  Proper — or  the 
conditions  of  the  Presentations  or  Representations 
of  external  things;  that  is,  the  intuitions  of  Space 
and  Time.  The  former  of  these  sciences  is  Pure 
Logic — the  science  which  considers  the  laws  to 
tvhich  the  Understanding  is  astricted  in  its  elabora 
tly  e  operations,  without  inquiring  what  is  the  ob 
ject — what  is  the  matter,  to  which  these  operations 
are  applied.  The  latter  of  these  sciences  is  Mathe- 
mavics,  or  the  science  of  Quantity,  which  considers 
the  relations  of  Space  and  Time,  without  inquiring 
whether  there  be  any  actual  reality  in  space  or  time. 
Formal  truth  will,  therefore,  be  of  two  kinds  — 
Logical  and  Mathematical." 

The  Formal  Sciences  are  evolved  from  certain 
ideas  and  are  founded  upon  certain  axioms  of  which 
it  is  not  their  province  to  treat.  These  belong  to 
the  domain  of  Philosophy — a  Rational  Science. 

If  now  we  have  correctly  apprehended  the  nature 
of  Mathematics  and  Logic,  methods  of  instruction 
adapted  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  them  must  have 
much  in  common;  and,  therefore,  it  may  be  well 
before  discussing  the  particular  principles  of  instruc 
tion  whu,h  apply  to  each  separately,  to  speak  of  the 
general  principles  which  apply  to  both  alike. 

I.  The  Formal  Sciences  in  General. 

The  object-matter  of  a  Formal  Science  admits 
division  into  three  classes,  as  follows :  1.  Definitions 
and  Axioms ;  2.  Deductions  and  Demonstrations ;  3. 
Application.  Its  applications  are  not  properly  a 
part  of  the*  science ;  but  they  are  very  important  in 


296        INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  FOKMAL  SCIENCES. 

the  work  of  teaching  to  illustrate  and  enforce  scien 
tific  principles. 

1.  DEFINITIONS  AND  AXIOMS. — Definitions,  in  the 
sense  here  intended,  express  the  necessary  limita 
tions  of  particular  conceptions.  This  is  their  mean 
ing  whether  they  relate  to  the  explication  of  a  term 
or  to  the  nature  of  a  thing. 

Axioms,  in  the  sense  here  intended,  express 
the  necessary  relations  of  particular  conceptions. 
Axioms  in  Mathematics  express  relations  in  space 
and  time,  and  Axioms  in  Logic  express  the  rela 
tions  of  one  part  of  the  thinking  process  to  another. 

It  is  exceedingly  important  that  teachers  should 
be  careful  in  teaching  Definitions  in  the  Formal 
Sciences,  where  no  real  object  can  be  presented  to 
illustrate  their  meaning.  "We  must  understand  the 
meaning  of  terms  before  we  can  use  them  properly. 
An  object  of  thought  must  stand  out  before  the 
mind  distinct  in  itself,  and  separate  from  everything 
else,  before  one  sure  step  can  be  taken  in  the  inves 
tigation  of  its  relations.  Imperfect  Definitions 
vitiate  processes  of  reasoning,  and  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  much  of  our  teaching  is  defective  in  not  requir 
ing  pupils  to  define  fully,  distinctly,  and  adequately. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  laws  to 
which  Definitions  must  conform.  Their  meaning  ia 
sufficiently  plain  without  any  explanation. 

1st.  A  definition  must  be  a  truthful  representation 
of  the  conception  defined.  It  must  contain  nothing 
that  does  not  belong  to  it. 

2d.  A  definition  must  be  an  adequate  representa 
tion  of  the  whole  conception.  It  must  contain  all 
that  belongs  to  it. 


THE    FOKMAL    SCIENCES    IN    GEXEKAL.         297 

3d.  All  that  is  contained  in  a  Definition  should 
be  self-evident.  A  Definition  should  not  need 
defining. 

4th.  A  Definition  should  be  an  affirmative  prop 
osition.  Showing  what  a  thing  is  not  does  not 
always  reveal  what  it  is. 

5th.  A  conception  cannot  be  defined  by  using  the 
same  terms  in  which  the  conception  is  expressed. 
In  such  a  case,  the  unknown  terms  which  darkened 
the  conception  would  also  darken  the  definition 
of  it. 

6th.  Definitions  should  be  stated  in  the  briefest, 
strongest,  and  most  expressive  form  of  words. 

Let  pupils  study  closely  the  Definitions  of  the 
text-book,  let  them  test  them,  and  make  others  for 
themselves.  They  may  commit  them  to  memory, 
but  it  is  much  more  important  that  they  should 
understand  them.  If  properly  conducted,  exercises 
in  learning  Mathematical  and  Logical  definitions 
will  prove  an  exceedingly  valuable  discipline  for 
the  mind. 

All  reasoning  would  be  impossible  without  certain 
fixed  principles  from  which  to  start.  No  man  could 
ever  convince  another  with  regard  to  a  truth  or  an 
error,  if  there  were  not  some  common  point  of 
agreement  between  them.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
Axioms  in  the  economy  of  thought.  And,  although 
a  formal  statement  of  them  is  not  always  made,  they 
constitute  the  bases  of  all  sciences,  and  are  espe 
cially  prominent  in  the  sciences  of  Mathematics 
ftud  Logic. 


298      INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL   SCIENCES. 

As  previously  stated,  the  Formal  Sciences  borrow 
their  Axioms  from  the  Rational  Sciences.  From 
Axioms  in  general  it  may  be  their  province  to  select 
such  as  belong  to  them;  but  they  have  nothing  to 
do  in  determining  the  nature  of  Axioms,  the  tests 
by  which  they  are  to  be  distinguished,  their  number 
or  their  classification. 

Mathematical  Axioms  are  so  well  known  that  it 
seems  unnecessary  to  enumerate  them.  They  un 
derlie  as  well  the  sciences  which  treat  of  number  as 
those  which  treat  of  form. 

Among  Logical  Axioms  the  following  may  be 
Darned — 

Irit.  All  thinking  is  governed  by  law. 

2<l.  Every  universal  is  composed  of  particulars. 

&1.  Every  particular  is  comprehended  in  a  uni 
versal. 

4vu.  Whatever  may  be  predicated  of  a  universal 
may  be  predicated  of  all  the  particulars  of  which  it 
is  composed. 

5tli.  Whatever  may  be  predicated  of  all  the  par 
ticulars  composing  a  universal  may  be  predicated 
of  the  universal. 

6th.  If  two  terms  agree  with  the  same  third  term 
they  agree  with  each  other. 

7th.  If  of  two  terms,  the  one  agrees  and  the  other 
disagrees  with  the  same  third  term,  they  disagree 
with  each  other. 

This  enumeration  is  not  intended  to  exhaust  the 
Axioms  belonging  to  the  science  of  Logic,  but 
simply  to  show  that  there  are  such  Axioms. 

With  respect  to  pupils  old  enough  to  comprehend 


THE   FOKMAL    SCIENCES   IN    GENEKAL.         299 

Axioms,  the  method  of  teaching  them  presents  no 
difficulty.  Their  simple  statement  will  secure  as 
sent,  and  nothing  more  is  needed.  The  discus 
sion  of  their  use  in  building  up  a  science  belongs 
further  on. 

2.  DEDUCTIONS  AND  DEMONSTRATIONS. — Deduction 
may  be  defined  as  the  process  of  drawing  out  a 
particular  from  a  universal  truth  by  simple  inspec 
tion  or  by  a  single  step  of  reasoning.  Demonstra 
tion  may  be  defined  as  the  method  of  finding  new 
truths  by  the  process  of  comparing  definitions, 
axioms,  and  established  propositions  with  one 
another.  The  first  has  the  form  of  a  direct  infe 
rence  or  a  single  syllogism,  while  the  second  con 
sists  of  a  train  of  reasoning  or  a  series  of  syllo 
gisms.  As  the  method  of  both  is  substantially  the 
same,  both  may  be  considered  together  under  the 
name  Demonstration.  This  may  be  the  case  also  if 
Deduction  be  used  to  designate  a  general  method  of 
reasoning,  and  Demonstration,  an  application  of  it. 

In  Pure  Mathematics,  all  that  cannot  be  learned 
directly,  by  intuition,  must  be  learned  by  Demonstra 
tion.  Inductive  reasoning  has  no  place  in  Mathe 
matics. 

In  Pure  Logic  the  same  is  true,  for  although  an 
Inductive  Syllogism  may  be  used,  yet,  in  a  pure 
form,  the  conclusion  must  be  just  as  much  a  posi 
tive  truth  as  it  is  in  a  Deductive  Syllogism.  In  Ap 
plied  Logic  as  in  Applied  Mathematics,  the  conclu 
sions  are  not  always  either  certain  or  exact. 

The  Demonstrations  of  Logic  consist  essentially 
in  showing  the  relations  between  the  conclusions 


300    INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   FOliMAL    SCIENCES. 

of  syllogisms  and  their  premises.  In  general,  but  a 
single  step  is  necessary  to  be  taken  away  from  the 
first  principles  upon  which  the  science  rests. 

Demonstrations  in  Mathematics,  although  like 
those  of  Logic  in  the  circumstance  that  they  con 
cern  pure  conceptions  and  not  the  conceptions  of 
material  objects,  differ  from  them  in  several  parti 
culars.  In  Mathematics  it  is  not  the  doctrine  of  the 
83'llogism  as  an  exposition  of  the  laws  of  thought 
that  is  to  be  demonstrated,  but  the  relations  of  num 
bers  and  forms  by  means  of  syllogisms.  Mathema 
tics  is  a  formal  application  of  Logic  to  the  concep 
tions  of  time  and  space.  The  student  of  Mathe 
matics  therefore  cannot  select  any  premises  but  he 
must  select  the  right  premises.  He  cannot  often 
find  the  truth  he  seeks  at  the  end  of  a  single  syllo 
gism,  but  must  frequently  trace  it  through  a  long 
series  of  syllogisms. 

So  far  as  methods  of  teaching  them  are  concerned, 
however,  the  Demonstrations  of  Mathematics  and  of 
Logic  may  be  considered  together ;  and  the  point  now 
is  to  find  the  governing  principles  of  those  methods. 

One  who  would  become  skilful  in  demonstrating 
must  attend  to  the  following  rules  : — 

1st.  Understand  the  proposition  to  be  demon 
strated  and  its  relations  to  the  definitions  and 
axioms  upon  which  it  depends  and  to  the  propo 
sitions  which  may  have  preceded  or  are  to  follow  it 

2d.  Observe  a  rigid  logical  order  in  the  successive 
steps  of  the  demonstration. 

3d.  Argue  closely  and  clearly. 

4th.  Attain  positive  conclusions. 

5th.  Use  appropriate  language. 


THE   FORMAL    SCIENCES   IN    GENERAL.         301 

These  rules  are  sufficiently  obvious  without  ex 
planation.  If  any  one  of  them  is  disregarded  no 
perfect  demonstration  can  he  secured.  They  apply, 
however,  to  the  demonstration  of  independent  prop 
ositions.  The  ohj  ect-matter  of  a  Formal  Science 
is  composed  of  several  kinds  of  propositions  which 
must  he  divided  according  to  certain  laws,  among 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important — 

1st.  The  divisions  should  exclude  one  another. 

2d.  The  order  of  the  divisions  should  he  deter 
mined  "by  their  logical  relations. 

3d.  In  the  arrangement  of  particular  propositions 
the  simple  and  the  independent  should  precede  the 
complex  and  the  dependent. 

A  child  first  learns  to  reason  in  connection  with 
objects.  The  steps  he  takes  are  very  short  and  very 
easy.  Properly  instructed,  his  skill  rapidly  improves 
until  he  can  appreciate  the  abstract  relations  of 
things  or  thoughts.  For  first  efforts  at  formal 
demonstration,  easy  propositions  should  be  given 
nim,  and  then  those  more  difficult.  Eventually  he 
may  be  able  to  follow  the  most  abstruse  reasoning 
incident  to  Mathematics  or  Logic. 

If  teachers  reason  skilfully,  their  pupils  will  be 
likely  to  be  benefited  by  their  example. 

Practice  in  detecting  the  different  kinds  of  fal 
lacies  in  arguments  will  be  a  good  exercise. 

A  wise  teacher  will  lead  his  pupils  to  discover 
their  own  errors  in  reasoning  rather  than  correct 
them  himself.  The  method  Socrates  so  successfully 
practiced  against  the  Sophists  of  his  day  may  be 
JUST  as  usefully  applied  now. 


802     INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES 

3.  APPLICATIONS. — Mind  and  matter  are  correla 
tive.  For  every  ideal  truth  there  must  be  a  real 
thing — for  every  form  of  thought  there  must  he 
matter  to  iill  the  form,  or  the  creation  would  not 
harmonize.  The  world  witMn  must  envisage  the 
world  without,  or  God  could  not  have  created  it, 
H  ence  all  abstract  formulse  must  be  adapted  to  some 
concrete  phenomena ;  or  every  Formal  Science  must 
have  its  Applications. 

Mathematical  principles  may  be  applied  to  all 
things  that  appear  under  the  conditions  of  space  and 
time. 

Logical  principles  are  of  universal  application,  foi 
all  things  may  be  thought  about. 

In  making  an  application  of  Formal  truths  three 
things  are  necessary:  1st,  To  have  attained  a  ctear 
conception  of  the  truths  themselves ;  2d,  To  have 
carefully  observed  and  colligated  facts ;  3d,  To  be 
able  to  apply  the  right  ideas  to  the  right  facts. 

Formal  truths  so  far  as  they  are  not  axiomatic  are 
attained  by  the  process  of  demonstration  as  already 
shown. 

The  collection  and  colligation  of  facts  belong  to 
the  department  of  Empirical  science  and  are  to  be 
treated  of  in  the  proper  place. 

The  Applications  of  the  Formal  Sciences  consist 
in  fitting  the  right  ideas  to  the  right  facts.  This 
may  be  more  a  work  of  art  than  of  science,  but 
nature  presents  no  more  important  work  for  human 
effort  to  perform.  He  who  deals  only  with  Formal 
thought  is  apt  to  become  impractical  and  visionary. 
He  may  build  up  systems  which  seem  beautiful,  but 
at  a  touch  they  vanish  into  the  thin  air  of  which 


MATHEMATICS.  303 

they  were  composed.  He  who  absorbs  all  his  rime 
in  collecting  facts,  who  with  eyes  cast  down  to  eartn 
never  looks  heavenward,  but  occupies  himself  in 
examining  animals,  and  plants,  and  stones,  ant) 
fossils,  until  the  eye  of  faith  grows  dim  and  matter 
seems  omnipotent,  does  even  less  for  himself  and 
mankind  than  the  speculative  dreamer.  But  he 
who  accustoms  himself  to  apply  the  right  ideas  to 
the  right  facts,  to  prove  his  reasonings,  to  verify  hia 
theories,  will  be  in  no  danger  of  becoming  an  im 
practical  idealist  on  the  one  hand  or  a  coarse  mate 
rialist  on  the  other.  He  finds  that  every  fact  rests 
in  an  idea;  that  eadh  jewel  has  its  casket  in  the 
crown  of  nature ;  that  forms  of  thought  existed  in 
the  God-mind  and  He  made  matter  to  fill  them. 

As  hints  to  teachers  giving  instruction  in  the 
Applications  of  the  Formal  Sciences,  it  may  be 
stated  tha'  sometimes  facts  may  be  given  and  pupils 
required  *o  find  principles,  and  sometimes  principles 
may  be  /nven  and  pupils  required  to  find  facts  ;  that 
easj-  applications  should  always  precede  those  more 
difficult;  that  numerous  examples  and  abundant 
illustrations  should  be  furnished,  arranged  both  with 
•  reference  to  specific  principles  and  miscellaneously; 
and  that  close  explanations  should  be  exacted  in 
all  cases. 

II,  Mathematics. 

After  what  has   now  been    said   respecting  the 
nature  of  the  Formal  Sciences  in  General  and  the 
methods  of  teaching  them,  it  is  not  deemed  necessary 
io  treat  specially  of  methods  of  teaching  Mathe 
matics.     Besides,  what  should  be  said  specifically 


304      INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

with  respect  these  methods  will  appear  in  speaking 
of  methods  of  teaching  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and 
Geometry. 

Something  will  be  expected,  however,  in  regard 
to  the  advantages  to  he  derived  from  the  study  oi 
Mathematics. 

Mathematics  has  occupied  a  prominent  place  in 
courses  of  instruction  for  the  young  from  the  earliest 
times.  Some  have  thought  that  its  disciplinary  ad 
vantages  were  greater  than  could  he  derived  from 
any  other  "branch  of  instruction,  while  others  have 
maintained  that  its  study  was  rather  hurtful  than 
otherwise.  In  the  hope  of  contributing  something 
toward  the  settlement  of  the  question,  it  is  proposed 
here  briefly  to  consider  the  value  of  Mathematical 
studies:  1.  In  themselves;  2.  In  their  objective  rela 
tions ;  1.  In  their  effects  upon  the  mind. 

1.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  themselves. 
— All  truth  is  worthy  of  study  for  its  own  sake.  To 
decide  otherwise  would  be  to  question  the  wisdom 
of  God  who  created  it.  All  kinds  of  truth,  however, 
may  not  be  of  equal  value,  and  the  inquiry  might 
be  made  as  to  the  relative  value  of  Mathematical 
truth.  Truth  may  be  divided  into  three  kinds: 
ideal  truth,  formal  truth,  and  real  truth.  Ideal  truth 
is  the  truth  which  we  know  by  simple  intuition, 
which  furnishes  the  basis  upon  which  all  other  truth 
rests,  and  the  criteria  by  which  it  is  judged.  Formal 
truth  expresses  the  necessary  forms  in  which  all 
truth  presents  itself  or  by  which  it  is  conceived. 
Real  truth  is  the  harmonious  relation  between 
things  or  between  thought  and  things.  In  compar- 


MATHEMATICS.  305 

ing  the  value  of  these  several  kinds  of  truth,  no 
reasons  appear  why  formal  truth  is  not  of  as  much 
worth  as  either  of  the  other  kinds.  It  seems  as 
noble  in  itself,  is  of  as  much  use,  and  manifests  as 
fully  the  glory  of  the  Creator.  But  formal  truth  is 
of  two  kinds,  Mathematical  and  Logical,  and  we 
seek  to  know  only  the  value  of  Mathematical  truth. 

As  has  been  already  shown,  Logic  contains  a 
larger  body  of  truth  than  Mathematics  and  is  of 
wider  application,  but  I  can  find  no  standard  by 
which  it  can  he  determined  that  a  truth  in  the  one 
science  is  more  valuable  than  a  truth  in  the  other. 

Mathematics  is  a  noble  science.  Many  of  its 
principles  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  and  some  of 
them  almost  sublime.  It  has  won  the  admiration 
of  great  men  in  all  ages,  and  his  education  must  be 
considered  incomplete  among  whose  acquisitions  a 
knowledge  of  Mathematics  is  not  found. 

2.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  their  Ob 
jective  Relations.  —  No  other  science  is  so  generally 
connected  with  the  affairs  of  business  as  Mathe 
matics.  Arithmetic  is  used  in  keeping  accounts  and 
in  all  the  transactions  of  buying  and  selling.  In 
connection  with  Geometry,  it  is  used  in  all  me 
chanical  employments.  Geometry,  Algebra,  Trigo 
nometry,  Conic  Sections,  &c.,  cannot  be  dispensed 
with  in  the  construction  of  machinery,  nor  in  any 
of  the  departments  of  Engineering.  All  this,  how 
ever,  is  so  generally  understood  that  it  seems  hardly 
necessary  to  mention  it. 

Mathematics  is  the  hand-maid  of  the  sciences. 
Working  by  means  of  this  potent  instrument  mod- 

26* 


306       INSTRUCTION'   IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

em  philosophers  have  been  able  to  make  rapid 
advances  in  many  departments  of  physical  science. 
To  it,  we  are  indebted  for  what  is  most  valuable  in 
Mechanics,  Optics,  Pneumatics,  Thermotics,  As 
tronomy,  and  other  sciences  like  these.  It  has  its 
uses  in  Geography,  Chemistry,  Geology,  and  even 
Poetical  Economy.  Matter  everywhere  presents 
itself  to  us  under  Mathematical  conditions.  Laws 
that  find  their  expression  in  Mathematics  rule  all 
that  moves  in  the  heavens,  all  that  flies  in  the  air,  all 
that  swims  in  the  waters,  all  that  springs  up  from 
the  earth  or  that  falls  upon  its  surface,  and  the  firm 
earth  itself.  Yonder  yellow  leaf  that  is  lifted  from 
its  stem  by  the  autumn  wind,  and  after  innumerable 
gyrations  in  the  air,  falls  upon  the  surface  of  the 
stream  and  is  borne  onward  by  the  current,  makes 
no  movement  but  in  obedience  to  such  laws. 
Mathematics  has  principles  great  enough  to  sweep 
the  Universe,  and  hold  suns  and  planets  in  their 
grasp,  and  delicate  enough  to  poise  the  smallest 
atom  on  a  point  much  too  fine  for  human  con 
ception. 

3.  The  Value  of  Mathematical  Studies  in  their 
Effects  upon  the  Mind. — One  of  the  most  important 
objects  of  study  is  to  secure  mental  discipline. 
What  is  the  value  of  Mathematics  in  this  respect  ? 
In  discussing  this  point,  Sir  William  Hamilton  says : 
"  If  we  consult  reason,  experience,  and  the  common 
testimony  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  none  of  our 
intellectual  studies  tend  to  cultivate  a  sraader  number 
of  the  faculties,  in  a  more  partial  or  feeble  'manner  than 
Mathematics."  In  proof  of  this  opinion,  he  quotes 


MATHEMATICS.  307 

a  large  number  of  authorities,  a  few  of  whom  I  shall 
take  the  liberty  of  citing  here : 

"  Bernhardi,  a  celebrated  Prussian  educator,  says  : 
4  It  is  asked  —  Do  Mathematics  awaken  the  judgment, 
the  reasoning  faculty,  and  the  understanding  to  an  all- 
sided  activity?  We  are  compelled  to  answer — No' 

"'This  also  shows  me,'  says  G-oethe,  'more  and 
more  distinctly,  what  I  have  long  in  secret  been 
aware  of,  that  the  cultivation  afforded  by  the  Mathe 
matics  is,  in  the  highest  degree  one-sided  and  con 
tracted.' 

"Descartes  stated  in  a  letter  in  1630,  'That  he  had 
renounced  the  study  of  Mathematics  for  many  years, 
and  that  he  was  anxious  not  to  lose  any  more  of  his 
time  in  the  barren  operations  of  Geometry  and 
Arithmetic,  studies  which  never  lead  to  anything 
important.' 

"'Thus  it  is  rare,'  says  Pascal,  'that  Mathemati 
cians  are  observant,  or  that  observant  minds  are 
Mathematical.' 

"  Dugald  Stewart  says,  '  When  the  Mathematician 
reasons  upon  subjects  unconnected  with  his  favorite 
studies,  he  is  apt  to  assume,  too  confidently  certain 
intermediate  principles  as  the  foundation  of  his 
arguments.'  And  again,  '  I  have  never  met  with 
a  mere  Mathematician  who  was  not  credulous  to  a 
fault.' 

" Bayle  says,  'It  cannot  be  disputed,  that  it  is 
rare  to  find  much  devotion  in  persons  who  have 
once  acquired  a  taste  for  the  study  of  Mathe 
matics.' 

"  De  Stael,  to  the  same  effect,  '  The  Mathematics 
lead  us  to  lay  out  of  account  all  that  is  aot  proved.' " 


308     INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

Sir  William's  argument  against  the  use  of  Mathe 
matics  as  a  discipline  for  the  mind  is  summed  up  in 
the  following  sentence.  "We  are  thus  disqualified 
for  observation,  either  internal  or  external,  for  abstrac 
tion,  and  generalization,  for  common  reasoning,  nay, 
disposed  to  the  alternative  of  blind  credulity  or  of 
irrational  skepticism."  This  argument  he  supports 
at  much  length  with  great  ability  and  greater  learn 
ing.  When  closely  examined,  however,  the  whole 
argument  will  be  found  to  bear  not  so  much  against 
the  use  of  Mathematics  as  a  disciplinary  study  in 
its  proper  place,  as  against  the  injudicious  claims 
advanced  in  its  behalf  in  that  regard. 

No  one  should  claim  for  the  study  of  Mathema 
tics  that  it  disciplines  the  ordinary  powers  of  obser 
vation.  It  is  not  concerned  with  either  material  or 
mental  phenomena.  Its  province  is  not  to  collect 
facts.  Pure  Mathematics  is  quite  indifferent  to  the 
existence  of  matter.  There  is  a  kind  of  observing 
power,  however,  which  the  study  of  Mathematics 
does  cultivate  —  that  power  which  sees  truth  in  de 
finitions  and  axioms  and  without  which  all  demon 
strations  would  be  blind  and  unproductive  of  fruit. 

Abstraction  and  generalization  as  used  in  the  Em- 

O 

pirical  sciences  have  no  place  in  Mathematics,  and 
therefore  that  study  cannot  develop  and  strengthen 
the  mental  powers  by  which  those  processes  are 
performed.  But  in  another  sense  all  of  Pure  Ma 
thematics  is  abstract,  and  surely  Mathematical 
truths  admit  classification  and  generalization.  In 
every  branch  of  Mathematics  there  are  forms  of 
demonstration  which  are  true  in  particular  cases, 
and  there  are  others  which  must  be  true  in  all 


MATHEMATICS.  309 

cases.     In  teaching,  pupils  may  be  made  to  advance 
from  particular  examples  to  general  principles. 

If  by  common  reasoning  is  meant  that  kind  of 
reasoning  in  which  the  conclusions  arrived  at  are 

O 

probable  but  not  positive,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  study  of  Mathematics  is  not  well  calculated  to 
increase  ability  in  its  use.  As  Hamilton  forcibly 
remarks,  "Mathematical  demonstration  is  solely 
occupied  in  deducing  conclusions;  probable  reason 
ing,  principally  concerned  in  looking  out  for  premises. 
All  Mathematical  reasoning  flows  from,  and,  admit 
ting  no  tributary  streams,  can  be  traced  back  to  its 
original  source :  principle  and  conclusion  are  con 
vertible.  The  most  eccentric  deduction  of  the 
science  is  only  the  last  ring  in  a  long  chain  of 
reasoning,  which  descends,  \vith  adamantine  neces 
sity,  link  by  link,  in  one  simple  series,  from  its 
original  dependence.  In  contingent  matter,  on  the 
contrary,  the  reasoning  is  comparatively  short;  and 
as  the  conclusion  can  seldom  be  securely  established 
on  a  single  antecedent,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
realize  the  adequate  amount  of  evidence,  to  accu 
mulate  probabilities  by  multiplying  the  media  of 
inference ;  and  thus  to  make  the  same  conclusion, 
as  it  were,  the  apex  of  many  convergent  arguments. 
In  general  reasoning,  therefore,  the  capacities 
mainly  requisite,  and  mainly  cultivated,  are  the 
prompt  acuteness  which  discovers  what  materials 
ure  wanted  for  our  premises,  and  the  activity, 
knowledge,  sagacity,  and  research,  able  compe 
tently  to  supply  them.  In  demonstration,  on  the 
contrary,  the  one  capacity  cultivated  is  that  patient 
habit  of  suspending  all  intrusive  thought,  and  of 


810     INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

Continuing  an  attention  to  the  unvaried  evolution 
of  that  perspicuous  evidence  which  it  passively 
recognizes,  but  does  not  actively  discover.  Of  ob 
servation,  experiment,  induction,  analogy,  the  Ma 
thematician  knows  nothing." 

The  above  is  a  true  exposition  of  the  nature  of 
Mathematical  reasoning ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
such  reasoning  is  of  no  value.  It  cannot  accom 
plish  what  its  nature  unfits  it  for,  but  it  may  accom 
plish  other  ends  quite  as  important. 

The  habit  of  rigid  demonstration,  of  close  think 
ing,  which  Mathematics  inculcates,  must  be  in  itself 
very  valuable.  If  no  other  kind  of  reasoning  be 
practiced,  it  will  no  doubt  lead  to  a  one-sided  cul 
ture  ;  but,  pursued  with  other  kinds,  any  danger  of 
this  sort  is  avoided,  and  much  is  gained  by  intro 
ducing  somewhat  of  Mathematical  exactness  and 
clearness,  both  of  thought  and  language,  into  what 
has  been  called  the  "  common  reasoning  of  life." 
Need  it  be  added  that  the  loose  forms  of  reasoning 
to  which  the  majority  of  men  are  accustomed  stand 
much  in  want  of  pruning? 

Mathematical  reasoning  is  necessary  in  Mechanics, 
Engineering,  Navigation,  Geography,  Astronomy, 
and  other  arts  and  sciences ;  and  when  we  consider 
that  the  principles  of  Mathematics  are  used  in  all 
transactions  of  buying  and  selling,  the  reasoning 
peculiar  to  that  branch  of  study  will  not  be  con 
sidered  very  uncommon. 

Hamilton  himself  admits  that  the  study  of  Mathe 
matics  tends  to  correct  the  vice  of  "mental  distrac 
tion,"  and  to  inculcate  the  virtue  of  "continuous 
attention."  The  attainment  of  this  end  alone  would 


MATHEMATICS.  311 

justify  the  study  of  Mathematics  in  our  schools,  for 
no  one  addicted  to  the  vice  of  "  mental  distraction" 
can  either  become  a  scholar  or  succeed  well  in  life. 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  a  mere  Mathematician — a 
man  who  knows  nothing  but  forms  and  numbers, 
might  become  credulous  as  to  premises,  and  skeptical 
as  to  conclusions ;  but  this  danger  cannot  exist  when 
instruction  in  Mathematics  is  combined  with  instruc 
tion  in  other  departments  of  learning.  Besides,  it 
would  seem  that  any  one  understanding  the  nature 
of  Mathematics  would  scarcely  expect  to  find  else 
where  self-evident  premises  or  positive  conclusions ; 
and  hence  be  on  his  guard  against  allowing  habits 
of  thought  engendered  in  demonstrative  reasoning 
to  influence  him  in  inductive  reasoning.  The  in 
ductive  reasoner,  indeed,  needs  quite  as  much  to 
be  on  his  guard  against  bad  mental  habits  as  the 
Mathematician. 

The  sum  of  all  is  this :  Man  and  nature  correlate. 
It  takes  the  whole  of  nature  used  as  means  to  culti 
vate  duly  the  whole  of  man.  Instruction  confined 
to  one  science,  or  to  one  class  of  sciences  must  be 
'partial,  one-sided,  and  productive  of  bad  mental 
habits.  Mathematics  may  receive  more  than  its 
share  of  attention  in  some  of  our  institutions  of 
learning,  and  bad  results  may  sometimes  flow  from 
it ;  but  that  such  studies  are  valuable  in  them 
selves,  in  their  objective  relations,  and  as  a  discipline 
of  the  mind,  is  susceptible  of  the  strongest  proof. 
The  only  point  that  has  been  seriously  questioned  ia 
their  value  for  the  purpose  of  mental  discipline; 
but  until  it  can  be  shown  thar  demonstrative  reason- 


312    INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

ing  is  valueless  in  itself,  that  the  discipline  of  the 
mental  faculties  it  calls  into  requisition  is  a  super 
fluous  work,  and  that  it  has  no  useful  application  in 
the  sciences  or  in  the  affairs  of  life — all  impossible, 
Mathematics  will  retain  a  prominent  place  in  our 
courses  of  instruction. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Arithmetic  may  be  defined  as  the  science  of  Num 
ber.  The  idea  of  number,  probably,  has  its  origin 
in  a  consciousness  of  successive  mental  states  con 
stituting  periods,  and  is  therefore  involved  in  the 
more  fundamental  idea  of  time.  But  whether  this 
is  a  correct  account  of  its  origin  or  otherwise,  it  is 
certain  that  external  objects  furnish  the  occasion  of 
its  formation,  and  that  children  possess  it  at  a  very 
early  age. 

Arithmetic  has  its  Definitions  and  Axioms,  its  De 
ductions  and  Demonstrations,  and  its  Applications. 

Among  Arithmetical  definitions,  there  must  be 
those  of  number,  a  unit,  a  fraction,  ratio,  &c. ;  and 
among  Arithmetical  axioms,  there  must  be  the  fol 
lowing  :  "  Two  magnitudes  are  equal  when  they  can 
be  divided  into  parts  which  are  equal  each  to  each;" 
"The  vvhole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts;"  "  The 
whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its  parts  f  "If  with 
the  same  means  the  same  operations  be  performed 
upon  equal  quantities,  the  results  will  be  equal." 

It  is  maintained  by  good  authority  that  "Pure 
Arithmetic  contains  no  demonstration,"  but  while 
the  operations  of  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying, 
and  dividing  may,  perhaps,  be  resolved  into  pro 
cesses  of  simple  intuition,  there  seem  to  be  other 


ARITHMETIC.  813 

Arithmetical  operations  which  cannot  be  so  resolved ; 
for  example,  that  the  product  of  the  two  means  of  a 
proportion  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  two  ex 
tremes,  or  that  if  the  numerator  and  denominator  of 
a  fraction  be  multiplied  or  divided  by  the  same  num 
ber  its  value  will  remain  the  same.  Arithmetic  may 
require  fewer  steps  of  reasoning  than  Geometry,  but 
its  methods  of  operation  are  substantially  the  same. 
All  the  reasonings  of  Arithmetic  are  properly 
deductive  or  demonstrative.  Some  writers  upon 
Arithmetic  use  the  term  induction  with  reference 
to  certain  methods  of  operation  ;  but  in  all  cases 
the  truth  sought  is  capable  of  being  demonstrated 
without  the  series  of  facts  from  which  it  is  inferred 
by  induction,  and,  besides,  universal  truths  which 
it  is  the  special  province  of  deductive  science  to 
attain,  can  never  be  arrived  at  by  an  inductive 
method. 

The  greater  part  of  our  treatises  on  Arithmetic  is 
taken  up  with  the  Applications  of  the  science.  Its 
practical  importance  renders  this  desirable. 

From  what  has  been  stated  above,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  general  remarks  made  upon  Methods  of 
Instruction  in  the  Formal  Sciences,  apply  to  Arith 
metic ;  but  as  already  intimated,  it  is  my  purpose 
to  enter  upon  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  Methods 
of  teaching  this  subject. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  these  methods,  it 
ruay  be  well  to  state  the. principal  ends  for  which 
Arithmetic  is  studied,  and  the  most  necessary  con 
ditions  of  their  attainment.  These  ends  are:  1st,  To 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  numbers  ;  2d, 
27 


314    INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

To  give  practice  in  mathematical  reasoning ;  3d,  To 
attain  precision  in  the  use  of  language;  and  4th,  To 
secure  skill  in  the  application  of  numbers  to  the  concerns 
of  life.  There  are  several  secondary  ends  which 
must  not  be  overlooked.  Among  them,  the  follow 
ing  :  1st,  Rapidity  and  accuracy  in  the  solution  of 
problems;  2d,  Skill  in  the  use  of  abbreviating  artifices  ; 
3d,  An  acquaintance  with  methods  of  proof.  The 
following  may  be  named  as  the  most  necessary  con 
ditions  for  the  attainment  of  these  ends :  1st,  The 
object- matter  of  the  science  should  be  distributed  in  d 
logical  order ;  2d,  Pupils  should  commence  with  the 
simplest  Arithmetical  operation,  and  be  thoroughly 
grounded  in  each  step  of  their  progress  before  taking 
another;  3d,  Arithmetical  definitions  and  rules  should 
be  understood  by  pupils  before  they  are  required  to  use 
them;  4th,  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  explain  their 
work  in  clear,  concise,  and  appropriate  language  ;  5th, 
Numerous,  well-graded,  skilfully  varied  problems,  em 
bodying  every  principle  learned,  should  furnish  ample 
opportunity  to  pupils  for  making  a  practical  application 
of  their  theoretical  knowledge. 

Arithmetic  is  usually  divided  into  two  parts,  Oral 
Arithmetic  and  Written  Arithmetic.  These  names 
are  derived  from  the  manner  in  which  the  operation 
is  performed.  All  Arithmetic  is  "Mental,"  "Intel 
lectual,"  and  "Practical"  in  its  character.  Written 
Arithmetic  may  embrace  all  Arithmetical  topics. 
In  preparing  their  work,  pupils  write  it  out  on  slates 
or  blackboards ;  and  in  reciting,  they  are  expected 
to  explain  what  they  have  done.  Oral  Arithmetic 
embraces  only  such  topics  as  admit  of  a  convenient 
oral  discussion,  and  such  problems  as  do  not  con- 


ARITHMETIC.  315 

tain  large  numbers  or  require  complicated  fractional 
reductions.  Pupils  are  expected  to  prepare  their 
lessons  in  Oral  Arithmetic  without  writing  down 
their  work,  and  to  repeat  the  prohlems  and  solve 
them  orally,  upon  hearing  the  teacher  read  them. 
Instruction  in  both  Oral  and  Written  Arithmetic 
should  be  given  at  the  same  time,  and  some 
advantage  may  be  gained  by  making  the  lessonr, 
correspond.  The  peculiar  advantage  of  the  Oral 
method  is  that  it  enables  a  teacher  to  accomplish 
more  disciplinary  work  in  the  same  time  than  the 
Written  method,  and  gives  more  exercise  to  tho 
powers  of  conception  and  memory.  Being  unaided 
by  written  symbols  it  tends  more  to  cultivate  con 
tinuity  of  thought. 

We  shall  now  endeavor  to  present  a  series  of 
Arithmetical  exercises  which  will  conform  to  the 
principles  already  indicated. 

1.  Exercises  in  Counting. — A  child  will  be  found 
to  possess  the  idea  of  number  at  a  very  early  age. 
He  undoubtedly  obtains  it  through  the  medium  of 
objects.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  expand  this  idea 
in  the  way  nature  indicates.  If  a  child  can  count 
too  when  he  enters  school,  the  teacher  must  begin 
his  instruction  at  that  point  and  teach  him  to  count 
twenty,  fifty,  and  a  hundred  in  the  same  way  he 
learned  to  count  ten.  Convenient  objects  may  be 
found  for  this  purpose  in  beans,  grains  of  corn, 
pebbles,  strokes  on  a  blackboard,  or  balls  on  a 
frame  Tne  pupils  should  be  taught  to  count  back 
wards  as  well  as  forwards,  and  without  objects  aa 
well  as  with  them. 


316    INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

2.  Exercises  in  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and 
dividing  orally. — These  exercises  must  first  be  taught 
with    objects;    but   the   pupil    must   be   gradually 
accustomed  to  do  without  them.     Small  numbers 
must  be  used  until  the  pupil  is  prepared  for  larger 
ones.     The  manner  of  conducting  such  exercises  is 
so  obvious  that  no  description  of  it  here,  is  deemed 
necessary.     Besides,  any  teacher  who  may  need  aid 
can  obtain  it  from  works  on  Oral  Arithmetic. 

3.  Exercises  in  combining  these  Processes. — These 
exercises  are  of  the  same  nature  as  the  preceding 
and  can  be  conducted  in  the  same  way.     The  teacher 
will  do  well  to  introduce  into  the  lessons  the  names 
of  the  pupils  in  the  class,  the  objects  about  the 
school-room,    trees,    flowers,    sheep,    horses,    cows, 
dogs,  &c. 

4.  Exercises    in    learning    the   written    Symbols  for 
Numbers. — Pupils  have    now  the  idea  of  number. 
They  can  readily  count,  and  it  is  a  task  of  no  diffi 
culty  to  make  them  acquainted  with  the  nine  digits. 
It  is  only  necessary  for  them  to  make  an  arbitrary 
association   between  the  number  and  the  character 
which   is    used   to   represent  it.     The   pupils   may 
count  while  the  teacher  forms  the  characters,  or  the 
teacher   may  name   the    numbers,  and    the   pupils 
either  point  them  out  or  name  them.     The  meaning 
of  the  cypher  must  likewise  be  taught. 

5.  Exercises  in  Numeration  and  Notation. — For  the 
purpose  of  teaching  Notation  and  Numeration,  1 


AKITHMETIC.  817 

would   arrange   columns  of  figures   upon    cords  or 
blackboards  thus: 


1 

10 

100 

1000 

10,000 

100,000 

2 

20 

200 

2000 

20,000 

200,000 

3 

30 

300 

3000 

30,000 

300,000 

4 

40 

400 

4000 

40,000 

400,000 

5 

50 

500 

5000 

50,000 

500,000 

6 

60 

600 

6000 

60,000 

600,000 

7 

70 

700 

7000 

70,000 

700,000 

8 

80 

800 

8000 

80,000 

800,000 

9 

90 

900 

9000 

90,000 

900,000 

This  done,  I  would  use  the  first  two  columns  in 
giving  the  first  lesson.  One  may  be  called  the  units 
column,  and  the  other  the  tens  column.  "We  now 
suppose  that  the  class  have  learned  to  read  and 
write  the  numbers  in  the  column  of  units,  and  we 
use  it  only  to  assist  us  in  the  task  of  teaching  them 
to  read  and  write  the  numbers  in  the  column  of  tens. 
The  teacher  should  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  single  figures  to  represent  any  number  of 
objects  up  to  nine;  but  that  ten  cannot  be  repre 
sented  by  a  single  character.  He  may  then  arrange 
objects  in  collections  of  ten,  and  have  his  pupils 
count  one  ten,  two  tens,  three  tens,  four  tens,  &c. 
If  now  he  tell  them  that  one  ten  is  designated  by 
the  figure  one  with  a  cypher  placed  to  the  right  of 
it,  as  in  the  column  of  tens,  they  will  be  prepared 
to  understand  that  two  tens  are  designated  by  the 
figure  two  with  a  cypher  placed  to  the  right  of  it, 
and  so  on  to  nine  tens.  The  pupils  should  be 
exercised  in  pointing  out  two  tens  or  twent}*,  five 
tens  or  fifty,  seven  tens  or  seventy,  &c. ;  and  after- 
wards  in  writing  them. 

27* 


318      INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

The  second  lesson  should  consist  in  teaching  the 
class  to  read  and  write  numbers  between  ten  and 
twenty,  twenty  and  thirty,  &c.,  to  ninety-nine.  The 
teacher  may  write  the  number  10  upon  the  black 
board  and  ask  how  many  added  to  ten  will  make 
eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  &c.  He  may  then  ask  how 
these  numbers  are  written,  and  if  no  one  can  tell, 
he  may  erase  the  cypher  and  put  1  in  its  place,  and 
eay  the  1  on  the  left  hand  signifies  one  ten,  and  the 
1  on  the  right  hand  one  unit,  and  one  ten  and 
one  unit  are  eleven.  If  when  1  is  put  in  place  of 
the  cypher,  the  number  becomes  eleven,  pupils  will 
readily  understand  that  when  2  is  put  in  its  place 
the  number  will  become  twelve;  3,  thirteen,  and  so 
on  to  nineteen.  The  numbers  between  twenty  and 
thirty  can  be  taught  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on  to 
ninety-nine.  Pupils  must  not  only  read  the  num 
bers  but  write  them.  Questions  like  the  following 
will  also  be  very  useful :  What  number  is  that 
which  it  composed  of  two  tens  and  seven  units  ? 
four  tens  and  three  units  ?  eight  tens  and  five  units  ? 
&c. ;  how  many  tens  and  units  in  twenty-four?  in 
thirty-seven  ?  in  seventy-six  ?  &c. 

Pupils  have  now  learned  to  read  and  write  all 
numbers  up  to  ninety-nine.  The  next  lesson  should 
make  them  acquainted  with  the  third  column,  or 
the  column  of  hundreds.  To  do  this,  the  teacher 
will  take  the  ten  collections  of  objects  of  ten  each, 
place  them  all  together  and  ask  the  number.  It  is 
one  hundred.  lie  points  to  the  number,  has  the 
pupils  notice  how  it  is  written,  and  then  they  readily 
read  and  write  the  other  numbers  up  to  nine  hun 
dred.  Any  number  may  now  be  placed  in  the  units 


ARITHMETIC.  319 

column  by  erasing  the  cypher  and  inserting  the 
number,  and  so  with  the  tens  column,  or  both 
columns  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  further,  as  the  same 
method  applies  to  the  column  of  thousands,  tens  of 
thousands,  hundreds  of  thousands,  &c. 

6.  Exercises  in  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication, 
and  Division.  —  A  pupil  who  can  read  and  write 
numbers  is  prepared  to  understand  the  operations 
of  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication,  and  Divi 
sion  ;  and,  therefore,  he  should  not  only  be  taught 
how  to  perform  these  operations,  but  why  they  are 
so  performed. 

For  the  pupil  to  understand  the  process  of  Addi 
tion,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to  know  that  those 
numbers  only  which  represent  things  of  the  same 
denomination  can  be  added  together.  This  he  can 
be  taught  readily  with  objects.  He  will  see  at  once 
that  five  grains  of  corn  and  three  beans  neither 
make  eight  grains  of  corn  nor  eight  beans,  and, 
hence,  that  units  must  be  added  to  units,  tens  to 
tens,  &c.  He  must  know  how  to  convert  lower 
denominations  into  higher  ones,  that  is  units  into 
tens,  tens  into  hundreds,  &c.  This,  however,  more 
properly  belongs  to  Notation  and  Numeration. 
Finally,  he  must  be  made  to  see  that  to  render  such 
reductions  more  convenient  he  must  commence  in 
adding  at  the  right-hand  column  of  figures. 

To  perform  the  operation  of  Subtraction  nothing 
more  is  necessary  than  for  that  of  Addition,  except 
the  converting  of  higher  denominations  to  lower 
ones,  and  that  is  as  easily  done  as  its  reverse. 


320     INSTRUCTION    IN   THE   FORMAL    SCIENCES^ 

There  is  no  principle  in  Multiplication  that  is  not 
found  in  Addition ;  and  Division  is  but  a  different 
kind  of  Subtraction. 

The  lirst  examples  in  Addition  should  consist  of 
such  numbers  that  the  sum  of  those  under  each 
denomination  can  not  exceed  nine.  The  first  ex 
amples  in  Subtraction  should  consist  of  such  num 
bers  that  each  number  of  a  certain  denomination  in 
the  minuend  should  exceed  the  number  of  the  same 
denomination  in  the  subtrahend.  The  first  exam 
ples  in  Multiplication  should  consist  of  such  num 
bers  that  none  of  the  products  of  numbers  in  the 
multiplicand  by  the  multiplier  can  exceed  nine. 
The  first  examples  in  Division  should  consist  of 
such  numbers  that  the  divisor  can  be  contained  in 
each  number  of  the  dividend  without  a  remainder. 
The  first  divisors  used  in  what  is  called  Lon^  Divi- 

O 

siori  should  be  less  than  ten.  In  all  cases  the  pro 
gress  of  the  pupils  should  be  gradual ;  but  one  point 
of  difficulty  should  be  presented  at  a  time.  Much 
practice  should  be  allowed  them  in  order  to  secure 
rapidity  and  accuracy  in  the  performance  of  their 
work.  Solutions  should  be  neatly  Avritten  upon 
blackboards  and  properly  explained.  Forms  of  ex 
planation  may  be  obtained  from  text-books;  but 
teachers  should  be  careful  to  have  their  pupils  un 
derstand  them  and  not  merely  commit  them  to 
memory.  Teachers  will  find  the  construction  of 
Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication,  and  Division 
tables,  by  their  younger  pupils,  a  very  valuable 
auxiliary  in  familiarizing  them  with  the  processes 
involved.  The  terms  applied  to  the  numbers  used 
in  Subtraction  are  Minuend,  Subtrahend,  and  Oil- 


ARITHMETIC.  32l 

ference.  Any  two  of  these  being  given,  a  third 
can  be  found.  The  same  is  true  in  Multiplication 
with  reference  to  the  Multiplicand,  Multiplier,  and 
Product;  and  in  Division  with  reference  to  the 
Dividend,  Divisor,  and  Quotient.  I  mention  these 
facts  here,  in  order  to  say  that  such  problems  pre 
sent  work  of  much  value  to  learners. 

7.  Exercises  in  the  Solution  of  practical  Examples 
involving  the  four  fundamental  Rules. — Pupils   not 
only  need  to  know  how  to  perform  simple  Arith 
metical  operations,  but  when  they  are  required  to  be 
performed.      For  this  purpose  numerous  practical 
problems  must  be  presented.     All  text-books  con 
tain  some  such  problems;  but  none  of  them  within 
my  knowledge  contain   one-fourth  as  many  as  are 
needed.     The  teacher  must  supply  this  deficiency. 
They  are  so  well  calculated  to  give  interest  to  the 
study  and  to  make  pupils  think,  that  I  am  disposed 
to  consider  them  almost  indispensable. 

8.  Exercises  in  imparting  the  Idea  of  a  Fraction.  — 
The  basis  of  all  Arithmetical  operations  is  the  unit. 
The  unit  may  be  multiplied  or  divided,  and  these 
processes  really  constitute  the  whole  of  Pure  Arith 
metic.     All  Integers  may  be  called  multiplied  units, 
and  all  Fractions,  divided  units.     Particular  whole 
numbers   denote  the   extent  of  the  multiplication, 
and  particular  fractions  denote  the  nature  of  the 
division. 

The  idea  of  a  fraction  is  formed  upon  seeing  things 
broken  up  or  divided.  Pupils  have  the  idea  when 
they  enter  school,  but  the  teacher  must  expand  it  b> 


322     INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

exhibiting  and  naming  the  parts  of  objects.  For 
this  purpose,  an  apple  may  be  cut  into  parts,  a  stick 
may  be  broken  into  pieces,  or  a  line,  a  square,  or  a 
circle,  drawn  on  a  blackboard,  may  be  divided  into 
sections.  Such  instruction  should  be  continued 
until  the  pupils  can  readily  name  the  fraction  upon 
seeing  the  object,  or  find  an  object  which  is  repre 
sented  by  the  fraction  ;  or,  in  other  words,  until 
they  learn  to  count  fractionally. 

9.  Exercises  in  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and 
dividing  fractions  orally. — At  this  stage  of  their  pro 
gress,  pupils  may  perform  orally  with  much  advan 
tage  some  of  the  simpler  problems  in  Addition, 
Subtraction,  Multiplication,  and  Division  of  Frac 
tions.  Such  questions  as  the  following  may  be 
asked:  In  Addition:  What  is  the  sum  of  one-half 
and  one-half?  one-third  and  one-third?  one-fourth 
and  two-fourths?  one-half  and  one-fourth?  one-half 
and  one-third  ?  &c.  ;  in  Subtraction :  What  is  the 
difference  between  one  and  one-half?  three-fourths 
and  one-fourth?  one-third  and  one-sixth  ?  one-half 
and  one-third?  &c. ;  in  Multiplication:  What  is  the 
product  of  two  times  one-half?  three  times  one-third  ? 
lour  times  one-sixth?  one-half  times  twro  ?  one-half 
times  one-half?  &c. ;  in  Division:  how  many  halves  in 
one  ?  in  two  ?  in  five  ?  how  many  times  is  two  contained 
in  one-half?  in  one-third?  in  two-fourths?  how 
many  times  is  one-fourth  contained  in  one-fourth? 
in  one-half?  in  one-eighth?  &c.  All  this  can  be 
beautifully  illustrated  with  squares  drawn  upon  the 
blackboard  and  divided  into  the  requisite  numbei 
of  parts.  As  soon  as  possible,  however,  pupils 


ARITHMETIC.  323 

pnould  be  taught  to  solve  such,  problems  without 
depending  upon  objects. 

10.  Exercises  in  teaching  Fractional  Expressions.— 
When  pupils  have  attained  a  clear  idea  of  a  fraction, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  teach  them  to  express  it. 
The   simplest    fractions    are    those    in   which   the 
numerator  is  unity,  and,  therefore,  pupils   should 
first  be  taught  to  write  ^,  \,  i,  1,  J2,  &c. ;  and  after 
wards  fractions  in  which  the  numerator  is  greater 
than  unity;  as  f ,  f,  |,  |2,  &c.    Pupils  maybe  required 
to  write  fractions  representing  the  given  parts  of 
squares  or  circles  drawn  upon  the  blackboard,  or 
they  may  divide  such  figures  so  that  certain  given 
fractions  will  represent  them. 

11.  Exercises  in  the  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multipli 
cation,  and  Division  of  Fractions,  and  their  Applications. 
— Pupils  are  now  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  work 
of  adding,   subtracting,  multiplying,  and   dividing 
fractional  numbers,  and  of  making  an  application 
of  them  in  the  solution  of  practical  problems.     The 
work  may  be  done  orally  or  by  writing.     The  sim 
pler  operations  of  fractions  can  be  understood  by 
inspection  ;  but  when  pupils  are  prepared  for  it,  the 
rules  for  finding  the  Greatest  Common  Divisor,  the 
Least  Common  Multiple,  and  all  other  rules  relating 
to  Fractions  must  be  rigidly  demonstrated. 

12.  Exercises  in  Decimal  Fractions. — With  a  know 
ledge  of  the   Decimal   Notation   and   of  Common 
Fractions,  it  will  be  no  difficult  task  for  a  pupil  to 
learn   Decimal  Fractions,  for  t'lere  is  no  new  prin- 


824       INSTBUCTION    IN    THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

ciple  involved.  A  Decimal  Fraction  is  a  fraction 
whose  denominator  is  always  10  or  some  product 
of  10.  Such  fractions  are  written  by  placing  a  point, 
called  the  Decimal  Point,  before  the  numerator. 
This  point  indicates  that  the  number  of  figures  in 
the  numerator  to  the  right  of  it  is  equal  to  the 
number  of  cyphers  in  the  denominator,  and  hence 
does  away  with  the  necessity  of  writing  the  de 
nominator. 

Instruction  in  Decimals  must  begin  by  making 
pupils  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  Decimal 
Notation.  They  must  be  taught  both  to  read  and 
to  write  Decimals  with  facility.  The  Decimal  Nota 
tion  may  be  taught  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
notation  of  integers;  but  this  trouble  need  scarcely 
be  taken,  as  pupils  can  almost  as  easily  read  or 
write  tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths,  as  tens,  hun 
dreds,  thousands. 

All  the  rules  in  the  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multi 
plication,  or  Division  of  Decimals  may  be  shown  to 
be  true  either  by  reducing  the  Decimals  to  Common 
Fractions,  or  from  the  nature  of  the  Notation  itself. 
Text-books  exhibit  both  methods,  and  it  is  un 
necessary  to  detail  them  here. 

13.  JExerc-ises  in  Compound  Numbers. — In  the 
Compound  or  Denominate  Numbers,  the  units  in 
crease  according  to  varying  scales.  These  scales 
are  f\xed  by  some  authority,  and  follow  no  regulai 
law.  Pupils  must,  therefore,  commit  them  to 
memory;  but  when  the  tables  of  Weights  and 
Measures  are  well  understood,  the  Addition,  Sub 
traction,  Multiplication,  and  Division  of  Compound 


ARITHMETIC.  325 

Numbers  present  little  difficulty  to  the  learner  that 
he  has  not  already  encountered  in  performing  the 
same  operations  with  abstract  numbers. 

14.  Exercises   in   Proportion,   and  Involution   and 
Evolution. — These  exercises  belong  to  Pure  Arith 
metic,  but  they  are  simply  modifications  of  the  four 
fundamental  rules.     They  present  no  special  diffi 
culty  in  teaching. 

15.  Exercises    in    Arithmetical    Applications. — A 
knowledge    of   Arithmetic    is    needed    in    almost 
every  kind  of  business  in  which  men  are  engaged, 
and,  therefore,  teachers  should  make  its  practica. 
applications  a  prominent  part  of  their  instruction. 

In  solving  practical  problems,  pupils  should  be 
required  to  understand  the  words  in  which  the 
problem  is  expressed,  to  point  out  the  relation  of 
the  thing  required  to  the  thing  given,  to  present  a 
neat  solution,  and  to  explain  their  work  in  concise 
and  appropriate  language. 

A  few  additional  suggestions  will  be  made. 
Problems  that  involve  but  a  single  principle  should 
be  given  first,  and,  afterwards,  those  which  involve 
several  principles.  Text-book  or  teacher  may  fur 
nish  a  form  of  solution,  but  the  problems  should  be 
so  arranged  that  it  cannot  be  followed  mechanically. 
Pupils  may  be  required  to  compose  problems  involv 
ing  certain  given  principles  or  answering  certain 
given  conditions.  Many  miscellaneous  problems 
add  much  to  the  value  of  an  Arithmetic.  These 
may  I  e  classified  according  to  their  relations.  1m- 

28 


j>t!6      INSTKUCTION    IN   THE    FOKMAL    SCIENCES. 

portant  facts  may  sometimes  be  incorporated  into 
Arithmetical  problems. 

Tbe  preceding  series  of  exercises  do  not  profess 
to  cover  the  whole  ground  of  Arithmetic;  but  it  is 
believed  that  most  that  is  essential  in  teaching  it, 
has  been  presented. 

ALGEBRA. 

Algebra  is  not  a  distinct  and  independent  branch 
of  Mathematics.  It  is  rather  a  method  of  repre 
senting  quantities  and  of  performing  Mathematical 
operations,  by  means  of  symbols.  These  symbols 
may  represent  a  portion  of  time,  an  extent  of  space, 
an  amount  of  matter,  value,  or  force,  and,  also,  the 
relations  of  quantities  and  the  operations  which  may 
be  performed  on  them.  These  symbols  are  used  in 
all  the  higher  investigations  of  Mathematics,  and 
they  have  been  productive  of  results  as  wonderful 
as  they  are  important.  They  have  enabled  mathe 
maticians  to  abridge  the  processes  of  calculation,  to 
overcome  difficulties  previously  considered  insur 
mountable,  and  to  express  in  beautiful  language  the 
truths  they  elicited.  All  this  should  recommend 
the  study  of  Algebra  to  the  student. 

Owing  to  the  symbolic  character  of  the  language 
used,  the  truths  arrived  at  by  the  process  of  Algebra 
are  more  general  than  the  truths  arrived  at  by  the 
processes  of  Arithmetic  and  Geometry.  Algebra  is 
sometimes  called  General  Arithmetic ;  in  a  larger 
sense,  it  might  as  appropriately  be  called  General 
Geometry.  In  Arithmetic,  particular  numbers  are 
given  and  particular  numbers  are  required.  When 
we  have  demonstrated  a  property  of  a  figure  in 


ALGEBRA.  327 

Geometry,  we  are  only  sure  that  it  is  true  of  the 
class  to  which  that  figure  belongs.  But  in  Algebra, 
all  kinds  of  quantity  may  be  denoted  by  symbols, 
and  the  truths  arrived  at  by  their  means  are  true  of 
all  quantities  whatever  when  they  are  subjected  to 
the  same  operations.  From  this  it  appears  evident 
that  common  Arithmetic  must  be  understood  before 
its  operations  can  be  performed  Algebraically,  and 
Synthetical  should  precede  Anatytical  Geometry  in 
a  course  of  study.  Algebra  should  be  commenced, 
however,  before  Arithmetic  and  Geometry  have 
been  completed. 

In  its  ordinary  signification,  Algebra  treats  of  the 
relations  and  properties  of  numbers  by  means  of 
symbols,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  we  design  to 
speak  of  methods  of  teaching  it.  Thus  considered, 
methods  of  teaching  it  must  be  quite  similar  to 
those  of  teaching  Arithmetic,  and  a  brief  discussion 
of  the  subject  is  all  that  will  be  necessary.  Any 
one  who  succeeds  in  teaching  Arithmetic  will  suc 
ceed  in  teaching  Algebra. 

In  the  sense  in  which  Algebra  is  now  considered, 
its  Fundamental  Idea,  and  its  primary  Definitions 
and  Axioms  must  be  substantially  the  same  as  those 
of  Arithmetic.  Its  Demonstrations  differ  only  in 
being  more  general ;  and  its  Applications,  in  being 
more  extensive.  These,  therefore,  need  no  discus 
sion  here. 

The  Definitions  peculiar  to  Algebra  must  be 
learned  oy  the  pupil,  not  perhaps,  all  at  once,  when 
he  commences  the  study,  but  as  he  needs  them. 

Ko  Algebraic  operation  can  be  performed  without 
the  use  of  symbols,  and  a  knowledge  of  such  as  are 


328    INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

necessary  in  the  solution  of  simple  problems  must 
be  imparted  to  learners  in  their  first  lessons.  The 
others  may  be  learned  when  they  have  made  some 
progress  in  the  study.  All  the  symbols  admit  a 
neat  classification,  and  a  knowledge  of  them  can  be 
most  readily  acquired  in  that  form. 

In  teaching  beginners,  it  is  best  for  the  teacher  to 
illustrate  the  meaning  of  the  symbols  by  using  them 
with  respect  to  numbers.  Thus  :  4  +  2=6  ;  8  —  3=5  ; 
4x3=12;  9-3=3;  7x4-^-2  —  4  +  2=12;  v/16=4; 
42=16.  He  may  desire  to  add  576  to  764;  but 
instead  of  performing  the  operation  Arithmetically, 
he  may  say  "  we  will  let  a  represent  the  first  number 
and  b  the  second,  and  the  operation  can  be  expressed 
by  a  +  6."  Nearly  all  the  symbols  used  in  Algebra 
can  be  illustrated  in  this  way,  and  no  one  but  a 
practical  teacher  can  appreciate  the  value  of  such 
illustrations  to  the  pupil  just  commencing  the  study. 

The  Algebraic  symbols  which  are  used  to  repre 
sent  quantity  are  general  in  their  significance,  and 
in  this  respect,  differ  from  numbers.  Pupils  can 
make  little  progress  in  the  study  of  Algebra  until 
they  understand  this  difference.  For  this  purpose 
the  teacher  cannot  do  better  than  to  make  a  series 
of  additions,  subtractions,  multiplications,  and  divi 
sions  with  numbers,  and  then  show  that  a +  6  +  ,  &c., 
a  —  5?  axb  or  a  6,  and  a-^-b  or  J  are  general  expres 
sions  for  all  of  them  in  the  order  named,  and  for  all 
others  possible.  Besides,  it  is  easy  to  give  illustra 
tions  showing  that  #,  5,  £,  &c.,  rr,  y,  2,  &c.,  can  be  used 
to  represent  numbers  in  whatever  manner  or  to 
whatever  things  they  may  be  applied. 

The  Algebraic  idea  can  perhaps  be  best  com  mo- 


ALGEBRA.  329 

nicated  by  requiring  pupils  to  solve  suitable  Arith 
metical  problems  Algebraically.  Some  of  the  prob 
lems  in  our  works  on  Oral  Arithmetic  can  be 
selected  for  this  purpose,  or,  as  some  authors  of 
text-books  on  Algebra  have  arranged  it,  they  may 
be  so  placed  as  to  be  an  introduction  to  the  general 
subject.  Pupils  seem  to  see  the  practical  value  of 
Algebra  more  clearly  when  commenced  in  this  way, 
and,  consequently  to  take  more  interest  in  the  study. 

After  such  an  introduction  to  the  subject  as  is  out 
lined  in  the  preceding  paragraphs,  pupils  can  be 
taught  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  Alge 
braic  quantities,  whether  integral  or  fractional;  but 
although  some  elements  enter  into  these  operations 
that  are  not  found  in  similar  ones  in  Arithmetic, 
they  involve  no  new  principle  of  teaching.  The 
pupil  must  be  allowed  much  practice  to  enable 
him  to  make  a  ready  and  intelligent  use  of  the 
symbols. 

The  simplest  step  in  mathematical  reasoning  may 
be  expressed  in  the  form  of  an  Equation ;  thus,  one 
added  to  one  equals  two  may  be  written  1  +  1=2. 
In  idea  the  Equation  is  constantly  before  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  when  engaged  in  the  study  of  Arith 
metic  ;  and,  consequently,  the  teacher  will  not  find 
the  task  a  difficult  one  to  acquaint  him  with  the 
Algebraic  form  of  expressing  it.  A  Pair  of  Scales 
can  be  made  to  furnish  a  very  good  illustration  of  the 
simple  form  of  an  Equation.  The  common  weights 
can  be  placed  in  one  scale,  and  any  body  or  bodies 
vvho^e  weight  is  unknown  can  be  placed  in  the  other ; 
and,  when  balanced,  the  Equation  is  formed,  and 
can  be  represented  by  letting  2-,  ?/,  z,  &c.,  represent 

28* 


330     INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    FORMAL   SCIENCES. 

'"lie  known  quantities,  and  «,  £,  c,  &c.,  represent  the 
unknown.  Having  attained  the  idea  of  an  Alge 
braic  Equation,  the  pupil  must  next  learn  to  reduce 
it  to  its  simplest  form.  For  this  purpose,  he  must 
be  taught  to  clear  the  Equation  of  fractions,  and 
to  transpose,  collect,  and  reduce  its  terms.  The 
method  of  performing  these  operations  and  the 
truth  of  the  axioms  upon  which  they  depend  can 
be  illustrated  by  taking  the  simplest  form  of  an 
Equation  ;  as  4=4,  and  showing  that  equals  may  be 
added  to  or  subtracted  from  equals,  multiplied  or 
divided  by  equals,  and  the  results  will  be  equal. 
In  Equations  containing  two  or  more  unknown 
quantities,  the  various  methods  of  elimination  must 
be  explained  and  illustrated.  The  different  methods 
of  solving  Quadratic  Equations  and  the  forms  to 
which  such  Equations  can  be  reduced  must  undergo 
thorough  discussion.  The  theories  of  all  kinds  of 
Equations  should  be  impressed  upon  the  pupil's 
mind  by  practice  in  solving  numerous,  well-graded, 
and  judiciously-selected  examples  and  problems  in 
volving  them.  These  problems  may  be  divided 
into  two  parts :  first,  that  which  relates  to  the  for 
mation  of  the  Equation  ;  and,  second,  that  which 
relates  to  the  solution  of  it.  The  formation  of  the 
Equation  consists  in  observing  the  facts  given,  in 
noting  their  relations,  in  finding  the  equality  be 
tween  the  known  and  the  unknown,  and  in  express 
ing  that  equality  in  Algebraic  language.  Having 
attained  the  elements  of  a  problem,  the  formation 
of  an  Equation  expressing  these  elements  is  a  syn 
thetic,  while  the  solution  of  the  problem  is  an 
analytic,  pro<  ess  The  teacher  may  require  one 


GEOMETRY.  331 

pupil  to  form  an  Equation  for  a  problem,  another 
to  solve  it,  while  still  another  is  engaged  in  maic- 
ing  a  problem  to  answer  the  conditions  of  a  given 
Equation. 

Perceiving  no  necessity  for  pursuing  the  subject 
further,  it  may  be  well  to  remark  in  conclusion, 
that  the  ends  for  which  Algebra  is  studied  are 
similar  to  those  for  which  Arithmetic  is  studied, 
that  the  general  conditions  which  must  be  observed 
in  their  attainment  are  the  same,  and  that  the  sug 
gestions  mentioned  in  reference  to  conducting  reci 
tations  in  Arithmetic  or  arranging  its  object-matter 
for  study  apply  equally  well  to  like  questions  in 
teaching  Algebra. 

GEOMETRY. 

The  Etymology  of  the  word  would  lead  us  to 
suppose  that  Geometry  has  reference  to  measuring 
the  earth,  and  no  doubt  it  had  this  reference  in 
early  times;  for  the  necessities  of  the  race  would 
compel  them  to  adopt  some  means  of  measurement 
long  before  abstract  truths  like  those  now  composing 
the  science  of  Geometry  could  be  appreciated,  much 
-less  reduced  to  a  system. 

Geometry  as  now  understood,  may  be  defined  as 
the  science  of  form.  Its  Fundamental  Idea  is  space. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  form,  pure  and  real.  Pure 
form  is  a  portion  of  space  limited  in  idea  but  not  in 
fact.  Real  form  is  a  portion  of  space  limited  in  fact. 
Geometry  proper  treats  only  of  pure  forms,  but  it 
may  be  applied  to  real  forms. 

Geometry  furnishes  the  most  perfect  model  of  a 
deductive  science.  It  may  be  considered  a  type  of 


332    INSTEUCTION   IN"   THE    FOEMAL    SCIENCES. 

all  the  rest.  No  Mathematician  doubts  that  its 
basis  rests  upon  the  Idea  of  space.  Its  Definitions 
and  Axioms  are  better  understood  than  those  of 
any  other  of  the  same  class  of  sciences.  The  De 
monstrations  which  form  the  body  of  it,  comprise  a 
beautiful  system  of  applied  logic,  each  admitting 
an  easy  reduction  to  the  syllogistic  form.  And  its 
Applications  are  among  the  most  important  in  the 
practical  affairs  of  life. 

The  two  most  common  divisions  of  Geometry  are 
Elementary  Geometry,  and  Higher  or  Transcendental 
Geometry.  Elementary  Geometry  treats  of  the  line 
and  the  circle.  Higher  Geometry  embraces  the 
consideration  of  all  curves  except  the  circle.  A 
brief  discussion  of  methods  of  teaching  Elementary 
Geometry  is  all  that  is-  contemplated  in  this  con 
nection. 

Elementary  Geometry  as  we  find  it  in  books  like 
those  of  Euclid  and  Legendre,  is  not  a  study  for 
children.  Its  abstract  conceptions  and  long  pro 
cesses  of  reasoning  require  for  their  full  compre 
hension,  minds  of  some  maturity  and  some  discip 
line.  The  idea  of  form,  however,  must  be  one  of 
the  earliest  which  springs  up  in  the  mind  of  a  child ; 
and  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  he  can  receive 
instruction  in  Geometry  at  as  early  an  age  as  in 
Arithmetic.  It  may  be  shown  that  this  theoretical 
conclusion  can  be  verified  in  practice. 

Young  children  can  learn  to  distinguish  a  great 
many  Geometrical  forms  ;  as  a  line,  a  square,  a  circle. 
a  triangle,  a  rectangle,  a  cone,  a  pyramid*  a  cylinder^ 
a  prism,  &c.,  &c.  For  this  purpose,  they  can  be 
taught  to  draw  them  on  their  slates  or  on  the  black- 


GEOMETRY.  333 

board,  and  they  can  be  shown  blocks  which  represent 
them  as  wholes,  or  are  cut  into  sections  of  which 
they  can  be  engaged  in  making  them. 

Young  children  can  also  be  taught  the  meaning 
of  many  Geometrical  terms.  It  is  not  meant  that 
abstract  definitions  should  be  given ;  but  certain 
Geometrical  terms  can  be  so  illustrated  as  to  render 
them  comprehensible  to  children.  The  following 
are  examples :  a  plane,  an  angle  and  its  different 
kinds,  the  different  kinds  of  triangles,  &  perpendicular, 
a  diagonal,  parallel  lines,  the  parts  of-  a  circle,  chords, 
polygons,  the  kinds  of  prisms,  &c.,  &c. 

Many  Geometrical  truths  can  be  made  known  to 
children  as  matters  of  fact.  They  can  perceive  these 
truths  without  being  able  to  demonstrate  them,  that 
is,  they  can  perceive  the  particular  truth,  but  cannot 
make  it  general.  It  is  not  a  difficult  thing,  with 
blocks  suitably  made,  or  pieces  of  pasteboard  suitably 
prepared,  to  show  children  that  "  If  one  straight  line 
meet  another  straight  line,  the  sum  of  the  adjacent 
angles  will  be  equal  to  two  right-angles;"  "When 
if  two  straight  lines  intersect  each  other,  the  opposite 
or  vertical  angles,  which  they  form,  are  equal ;"  "In 
every  triangle  the  sum  of  the  three  angles  is  equal 
to  two  right  angles;"  u Every  triangle  is  half  the 
parallelogram  which  has  the  same  base  and  the 
same  altitude ;"  "  The  square  described  on  the 
hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  is  equivalent 
to  the  sum  of  the  squares  described  on  the  other 
two  sides ;"  &c.,  &c.  A  well-graded  course  of  in 
struction  of  this  kind,  if  judiciously  given,  would 
furnish  very  valuable  discipline  to  children  of  the 
Age  of  ten  or  twelve  years,  and  greatly  diminish  for 


834    INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

them  the  labor  of  Geometrical  demonstration  when 
their  minds  become  sufficiently  mature  to  enter  upon 
it.  Besides,  it  seems  to  be  the  natural  method. 
Solid  objects  first  meet  the  eye,  not  points,  and 
lines,  and  angles;  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  method 
of  proceeding  should  be  from  the  concrete  to  the 
abstract — from  the  particular  to  the  general. 

When  pupils  are  prepared  to  understand  Geomet 
rical  Demonstrations,  they  should  be  supplied  with 
a  suitable  text-book.  The  first  pages  of  such  a  book 
will  present  to  them  certain  Axioms  and  Definitions 
relating  to  Geometry  which  must  be  carefully  studied. 
If  the  author  of  the  book  has  done  his  duty,  its  sub 
ject-matter  will  be  arranged  in  a  rigidly  logical 
order,  starting  with  the  simplest  and  most  inde 
pendent  propositions,  and  containing  no  missing} 
imperfect,  or  superfluous  link  i?i  the  chain. 

Geometrical  propositions  admit  of  two  kinds  of 
demonstration ;  the  first,  with  axioms,  definitions, 
or  previously  proven  propositions  as  premises,  seeks 
to  show  that  the  proposition  to  be  demonstrated  is 
included  in  these  premises,  and  is  therefore  true; 
while  the  second  consists  in  formfng  hypotheses 
which  contradict  the  proposition,  and  in  reasoning 
upon  these  hypotheses  until  conclusiop?  are  reached 
which  contradict  truths  before  knowv,  and  thus 
prove  the  proposition  by  demon stratipp;  that  the 
hypotheses  which  contradict  it  are  false.  The 
former  of  these  methods  of  demonstration  is  called 
direct,  and  the  latter,  indirect,  or  reductio  ad  a^surdum. 
Both  are  equally  philosophical;  but  where  &  choice 
is  optional  between  them,  the  first  as  the  more 
simple  is  generally  preferred  to  the  second.  8on>« 


GEOMETRY.  335 

propositions  admit  both  kinds  of  demonstration, 
and  many  can  be  demonstrated  by  different  methods 
of  the  same  kind.  With  such  propositions,  when  a 
pupil  has  followed  the  text-book  in  one  method  of 
demonstration,  he  might  be  greatly  benefited  by  an 
effort  to  find  others.  It  would  be  an  admirable 
feature  in  a  text-book  to  present  here  and  there 
undemonstrated  propositions,  because  pupils  ought 
not  only  to  be  trained  to  follow  the  reasoning  of 
others;  but  to  invent  processes  of  reasoning  for 
themselves.  The  connection  between  certain  propo 
sitions  is  so  obvious,  that  a  pupil,  after  having 
demonstrated  one,  ought  to  be  able  to  infer  the  next 
without  being  helped  to  it  by  the  book  or  teacher. 
Original  thinking  is  always  much  more  valuable 
than  that  which  is  second-hand.  If  the  teacher 
desire  fully  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  his  pupils 
the  truths  they  demonstrate,  he  should  teach  them 
to  make  an  application  of  them  at  once  in  the  solu 
tion  of  well-selected  problems.  Mensuration  might 
be  very  profitably  taught  in  connection  with  Geom 
etry.  It  might  be  well  also  to  require  the  pupil 
sometimes  to  give  Algebraic  demonstrations  of 
Geometrical  propositions,  and  to  solve  Algebraic 
problems  by  Geometrical  methods. 

In  conducting  a  recitation  in  Geometry,  the  prop 
osition  should  be  stated,  and  the  diagram  drawn, 
from  memory;  and  the  demonstration  should  be 
given  clearly  and  precisely,  in  the  pupil's  own  lan 
guage.  In  placing  letters  or  numbers  to  the  dia 
gram,  it  is  best  to  use  them  in  a  different  order 
trom  the  text-book,  or  the  practice  of  demon strating 
without  a  diagram  may  be  productive  of  benefit, 


336          INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   FORMAL   SCIENCES. 

especially  in  reviews.  In  addition  to  this,  the  pupil 
should  be  taught  to  give  a  complete  analysis  of  each 
demonstration.  He  should  be  able  to  tell — 

1st.  The  kind  of  quantity  under  consideration. 

2d.  The  relation  of  the  demonstrated  proposition 
to  those  which  have  preceded  it. 

3d.  The  kind  of  demonstration  used. 

4th.  The  axioms,  definitions,  or  previously  de 
monstrated  truths  used  as  premises. 

5th.  The  relation  of  the  conclusion  to  the  premises. 

6th.  The  relation  of  Corollaries,  Scholiums,  and 
Lemmas,  to  the  principal  proposition. 

III.  Logic. 

The  aim  of  this  book  does  not  require  that  Logic 
should  undergo  a  lengthy  discussion.  Much  has  to 
be  omitted,  and  the  vast  majority  of  teachers  will 
miss  a  discussion  on  Logic  less  than  one  on  most 
other  branches  taught  in  our  schools.  Still  some 
thing  must  be  said,  and  it  is  proposed  to  say  it 
under  two  heads:  1.  The  utility  of  Logic  as  a  study; 
2.  The  methods  of  teaching  Logic. 

1.  The  Utility  of  Logic  as  a  Study.  —  Some  extra 
vagant  claims  have  been  made  by  Logicians  in  res 
pect  to  the  utility  of  their  favorite  study.  It  has 
been  called  the  Art  of  Arts,  the  Science  of  Sciences, 
Catharticon  Intellectus,  Caput  et  Apex  Philosophies,  &c. ; 
and  these  names  indicate  the  estimation  in  which 
it  was  held  by  the  authors  who  used  them.  But 
while  these  claims  should  be  moderated,  it  will  ap 
pear  from  what  is  to  be  said  that  the  utility  of  Logic 


LOGIC.  337 

is  such  as  to  demand  for  it  a  prominent  place  in 
every  liberal  course  of  study. 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  in  itself.  Thought,  as 
thought,  presents  a  noble  object  for  investigation. 
It  is  man  who  thinks  and  thinking  is  his  highest 
attribute.  A  thought  is  greater  than  a  thing. 
Things  pass  away,  thoughts  are  immortal.  If 
science  as  science  is  worthy  of  study  anywhere,  it 
is  surely  worthy  of  it  when  it  treats  of  the  laws  of 
thought.  "And  is  it  nothing,"  says  a  writer,  "to 
watch  the  secret  workshop  in  which  nature  fabri 
cates  cognitions  and  thoughts,  and  to  penetrate  into 
the  sanctuary  of  self-consciousness,  to  the  end  that, 
having  learnt  to  know  ourselves,  we  may  be  qua 
lified  rightly  to  understand  all  else?" 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  on  account  of  its  objective 
relations.  Men  can  do  nothing  well  unless  they 
think  well.  All  science  and  all  art  are  the  fruit  of 
right  thinking.  Wrong  thinking  is  at  the  root  of 
all  error.  In  this  sense,  Logic  would  almost  be 
entitled  to  be  called  Ars  Artium  or  Scientia  Scienti- 
arum.  It  is  only  in  theory,  however,  that  Logic 
holds  this  place,  for  the  best  Logicians  are  far  from 
'finding  all  truth  or  escaping  all  error.  All  that 
can  be  claimed  is  that  as  reasoning  takes  place  in 
every  thing  we  do,  the  study  of  the  laws  of  thought 
must  aid  us  in  reasoning  correctly.  Besides,  nature 
in  all  its  departments  fills  with  matter  certain  logical 
forms,  and  cannot  be  well  understood  in  itself  or 
well  arranged  into  systems  of  science  without  a 
knowledge  of  these  forms.  Logic  is  an  indispen 
sable  instrument  in  scientific  investigation. 

Logic  is  a  useful  study  because*  it  disciplines  the 

29 


338    INSTRUCTION   IN    THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

Understanding.  The  Understanding  is  the  faculty 
by  which  we  reason.  The  end  of  Logic  is  to  reason 
well.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  study  of  Logic  dis 
ciplines  the  Understanding.  It  not  only  imparts 
skill  but  power,  for  reasoning  about  reasoning  must 
be  at  least  as  capable  of  strengthening  and  develop 
ing  the  Understanding  as  reasoning  about  some 
thing  else. 

2.  Methods  of  teaching  Logic. — If  the  nature  of 
Logic  is  as  we  have  stated  it  to  be,  its  subject-matter 
will  be  composed  of  Definitions  and  Axioms,  Deduc 
tions  and  Demonstrations,  and  Applications. 

Every  one  who  has  the  least  idea  of  Logic  is 
aware  the  first  step  in  teaching  the  science  must 
consist  in  making  pupils  acquainted  with  the  defi 
nitions  of  concept,  judgment,  reasoning ;  term,  prop 
osition,  syllogism,  induction,  deduction,  &c.  Indeed, 
Logic  consists  in  much  greater  part  than  Mathe 
matics  in  definitions  and  explications  of  the  pro 
ducts  of  the  intuitions  of. the  Reason.  The  axioms 
of  Logic,  too,  admit  as  clear  a  statement  as  those 
of  Mathematics  and  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
science.  Hamilton  speaks  of  Fundamental  Laws 
of  Thought,  and  states  them  as  follows:  1.  The  Law 
of  Identity;  2.  The  Law  of  Contradiction;  3.  The 
Laiv  of  Excluded  Middle  ;  4.  The  Law  of  Reason  and 
Consequent.  Other  Logicians  give  substantially  the 
same  laws.  But  all  of  these  laws  admit  of  state 
ment  in  the  form  of  axioms,  and  many  Logicians 
Dave  so  stated  them. 

The  Body  of  Pure  Logic  is  arranged  by  Hamilton, 
and  substantially  so  by  many  others,  into  two  great 


LOGIC.  339 

classes  which  may  be  expressed  as  follows :  1.  The 
Means  of  Thinking;  2.  The  Methods  of  Thinking. 
The  Means  of  Thinking  include  Concepts,  Judg 
ments,  and  Reasonings.  Concepts  are  the  products 
of  conception.  Judgments  are  the  arrangement 
of  concepts  as  subjects  and  predicates.  Reasonings 
are  processes  by  which  one  judgment  is  deduced 
from  another,  by  means  of  a  third  which  is  inter 
mediate.  Reasonings,  when  fully  stated,  assume 
the  form  of  syllogisms,  of  which  concepts  and  judg 
ments  are  the  elements.  The  Methods  of  Thinkin^ 

o 

include  the  doctrine  of  Definition,  the  doctrine  of 
Division,  and  the  doctrine  of  Proof.  Logical  defi 
nition  is  the  complete  development  of  a  concept. 
Logical  division  is  the  separation  of  a  whole  into  its 
parts  according  to  their  relations.  Proof  consists 
in  deducing  one  judgment  from  another  known  tc 
be  true. 

This  whole  Body  of  Pure  Logic  is  made  up  in  the 
main  of  definitions  and  judgments  which  are  knowa. 
to  be  true  only  by  intuition.  A  pupil  who  does  not 
realize  in  his  own  mind  the  thing  spoken  of  will  noi 
be  profited  in  the  least  by  the  words  of  the  Logician. 
'A  teacher  of  Logic  must  be  constant  in  his  efforts 
to  induce  his  pupils  to  investigate  the  products  of 
thought  as  they  lie  in  their  own  minds.  The  study 
of  Psychology  should  precede  that  of  Formal  Logic, 
both  because  the  habit  of  introspection  into  one's 
own  mind  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  in  the  study  of 
Logic,  and  because  concrete  mental  phenomena 
are  more  easily  understood  than  those  which  are 
abstract. 

Logic   has  also   deductions  and  demonstrations, 


340      INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    FORMAL    SCIENCES. 

but  their  nature  and  the  methods  of  teaching  them 
have  been  sufficiently  characterized  in  discussing 
the  "Formal  Sciences  in  General." 

In  regard  to  teaching  Logic  as  a  whole,  it  may 
be  remarked  further,  that  the  method  for  beginners 
should  be  synthetic.  Thought  must  be  presented 
first  in  its  elements,  and  afterwards  in  its  connec 
tions.  To  analyze  thought,  requires  a  knowledge 
of  thought,  and  this  is  what  the  pupil  does  not 
possess  but  seeks.  Besides,  a  system  of.  Logic  is  a 
growth.  It  commences  with  a  germ  in  the  Reason 
and  develops  all  its  parts  into  a  compact  system. 
This  order  of  growth  should  be  the  order  of  study. 

Logic  has  its  applications  in  all  the  departments 
of  science  and  art;  and  to  attain  skill  in  making 
these  applications  is  the  chief  end  of  the  study.  Chil 
dren  begin  to  reason  when  very  young.  Through 
out  their  whole  course  of  study,  it  is  the  duty  of 
parents  and  teachers  to  train  them  to  reason  well — 
to  train  them  by  correcting  their  mistakes,  by  teach 
ing  them  to  correct  their  own  mistakes  and  the 
mistakes  of  others,  by  setting  them  a  good  example 
of  logical  reasoning.  Thus  taught  they  may  be 
come  practical  Logicians  without  learning  Logic. 
All  this  training,  however,  is  rather  mechanical  than 
scientific  in  its  character.  Valuable  for  children, 
with  more  mature  minds  it  must  give  place  to  some 
thing  higher.  The  science  of  Logic  must  be  studied 
by  all  who  wish  to  make  an  intelligent  application 
of  its  principles. 

The  study  of  Logic  in  itself  will  not  make  a  good 
reason er.  A  person  may  know  all  the  kinds,  and 


LOGIC.  341 

figures,  and  modes  of  the  Syllogism  and  still  be 
unable  to  construct  one  that  will  answer  the  condi 
tions  of  practical  life.  The  teacher  who  would  make 
his  pupils  good  reasoners  must  not  only  show  them 
how  reasoning  is  done  or  why  it  has  certain  forms, 
but  he  must  teach  them  to  reason.  The  faculty  of 
reasoning  itself  must  be  exercised  in  order  to  grow. 
The  laws  of  thinking  must  be  taught,  and  then 
practiced  until  all  thinking  is  governed  by  them  — 
until  they  "  become  identified  with  the  spontaneous 
activity  of  the  reason." 

Logic  as  taught  in  the  schools  is  too  formal. 
More  examples  should  be  given ;  more  practical 
applications  should  be  required.  Pupils  should  be 
exercised  in  giving  definitions,  in  making  divisions, 
in  constructing  syllogisms,  in  analyzing  arguments 
and  demonstrations,  and  in  building  up  systems  of 
science.  Every  lesson  in  science  should  be  made  a 
lesson  in  Applied  Logic,  and  thus  the  young  would 
be  prepared  for  the  great  work  of  life. 
29* 


CHAPTER    IV. 

INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

FACTS  are  observed ;  these  facts  are  arranged  into 
classes ;  general  laws  are  inferred  from  them,  and 
thus  the  Empirical  Sciences  are  built  up.  The  Em 
pirical  sciences  comprehend  the  systematic  arrange 
ment  of  the  generalizations  of  experience.  They 
embrace  a  large  number  of  particular  sciences:  as 
Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry,  Mete 
orology,  Geology,  Botany,  Zoology,  Mineralogy, 
Geography,  Physiology,  Psychology,  &c.,  &c.  A 
classirication  of  them  may  be  made  as  follows  :  The 
Mechanical  Sciences,  as  Astronomy,  Mechanics, 
Optics,  &c. ;  the  Chemical  Sciences,  as  Chemistry, 
Galvanism,  &c. ;  the  Classificatory  Sciences,  as 
Botany,  Zoology,  &c. ;  the  Organic  Sciences,  as 
Physiology,  Anatomy,  &c. ;  and  the  Psychological 
Sciences,  as  those  sciences  of  mind  which  are 
founded  upon  the  facts  revealed  by  consciousness. 

It  matters  little  here,  however,  what  particular 
branches  of  study  are  included  in  the  Empirical 
Sciences,  or  of  what  classification  they  are  suscepti 
ble  ;  since  all  of  them  consist  of  facts  which  must 
be  observed,  of  classes  which  must  be  formed,  and 
of  inferences  which  must  be  drawn,  or  laws  which 
must  be  applied  ;  and,  hence,  all  of  them  must  bo 
taught  by  the  same  methods. 

(342) 


INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL   SCIENCES.      343 

It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  say  anything  in 
regard  to  the  importance  of  the  study  of  the  Empi 
rical  Sciences,  nor  would  anything  be  said  were  it 
not  for  the  fact  that  such  studies  are  much  neglected 
in  our  American  schools.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  student's  time,  both  in  Common  School  and 
College,  is  taken  up  with  the  study  of  Language 
and  Mathematics,  and  he  has  little  left  to  devote 
to  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  great  science  of 
nature. 

Few  sciences  can  be  more  useful  to  man  than  the 
Empirical  Sciences.  These  sciences  treat  of  the 
light  by  which  he  sees,  the  heat  by  which  he  is 
warmed,  the  air  which  he  breathes,  the  earth 
from  which  he  draws  his  sustenance,  the  animals 
and  plants  that  minister  to  his  wants,  and  his  own 
body  and  mind.  There  is  not  one  single  occupation 
in  which  a  person  may  not  derive  great  advantage 
from  a  knowledge  of  some  of  these  sciences.  They 
relate  to  life  in  all  its  forms  and  circumstances. 

Few  sciences  can  furnish  more  valuable  mental 
discipline  than  the  Empirical  sciences.  They  exer 
cise  the  senses,  the  perceptive  powers,  the  judgment, 
the  imagination,  and  the  reason.  They  present 
facts  that  a  child  may  comprehend,  and  problems 
that  men  like  Bacon,  Newton,  Franklin,  and  Hum- 
boldt  have  not  been  able  to  solve.  Minds  devoted 
exclusively  to  the  study  of  the  Abstract  or  Rational 
sciences,  are  apt  to  be  dogmatic.  They  would  like  to 
control  the  universe  with  laws  of  their  own  making. 
They  form  their  notions  of  what  ought  to  be,  and  grow 
captious  if  these  notions  are  not  found  to  correspond 
with  what  is.  They  dwell  in  an  ideal  world  which 


344      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

is  sometimes  quite  different  from  the  real.  Tk  . 
results  of  this  mode  of  thinking  appeared  in  the 
dreamy  speculations  of  the  Scholastic  Philosophy, 
the  bad  effects  of  which  it  required  all  the  strength 
of  the  mighty  mind  of  Bacon  to  neutralize.  The 
human  intellect  can  engage  in  no  nobler  task  than 
the  study  of  the  Rational  Sciences ;  but  the  disci 
pline  they  furnish  should  be  tempered  by  that  which 
comes  only  from  the  study  of  the  Empirical  Sciences. 
With  one  hand  we  may  clutch  the  ideal,  if  with  the 
other  we  hold  fast  to  the  real.  The  study  of  the 
Empirical  Sciences  is  calculated  to  make  men 
patient  in  investigation,  slow  in  the  expression  of 
their  own  opinions,  and  liberal  toward  the  opinions 
of  others. 

The  Empirical  Sciences  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
awaken  love  for  the  Creator.  It  is  only  the  "fool" 
that  "hath  said  in  his  heart  there  is  no  God."  The 
wise  find  the  footsteps  of  a  God  everywhere,  and 
nowhere  are  they  more  clearly  discerned  than  in  the 
works  He  has  made.  These  works  teem  with  so 
many  proofs  of  wisdom,  evidences  of  goodness,  and 
marks  of  beauty,  that  one  who  studies  them  must 
have  his  heart  warmed  in  love  and  adoration  to  the 
Being  who  made  them  all.  Truly,  "  An  undevout 
naturalist  must  be  mad."  The  Psalmist  fitly  ex 
claims,  "  Whoso  is  wise,  and  will  observe  these 
things,  even  they  shall  understand  the  loving  kind 
ness  of  the  Lord." 

In  addition  to  the  strong  reasons  in  fiivor  of  the 
aiady  of  the  Empirical  Sciences,  which  have  been 
just  stated,  two  others  of  a  less  general  application 
will  be  named. 


INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES.      345 

A  taste  for  the  study  of  nature  tends  to  lighten 
labor.  Labor  is  not  toil  to  the  man  that  thinks 
while  he  works.  All  schemes  that  contemplate 
dignifying  labor  without  educating  the  laborer  will 
prove  abortive.  The  farmer  who,  while  he  works, 
finds  food  for  thought  in  animals,  insects,  plants, 
and  soils ;  the  mechanic  who  speculates  upon  the 
properties  of  matter  and  the  nature  of  force  ai  he 
deals  with  them;  the  miner  who  studies  strata,  and 
veins,  and  fossils,  while  he  exhumes  the  treasures 
deep-buried  in  the  earth's  bosom,  do  much  to  con 
vert  the  curse  of  labor  into  a  blessing.  Hugh 
Miller  may  have  cut  out  and  chiseled  down  as  many 
stones  as  his  companions  in  the  quarries  of  Scotland; 
but  he  found  a  pleasure  in  the  task  which  they  could 
not,  his  head  was  kept  as  busy  as  his  hands,  he 
worked  like  a  man,  not  like  a  slave. 

The  study  of  nature  gives  pleasant  employment 
in  leisure  hours.  Large  numbers  of  persons  in 
every  community  are  engaged  in  indoor  occupations. 
For  these,  linguistic,  mathematical,  or  metaphysical 
studies  would  be  inappropriate.  They  want  exercise 
with  study.  This  they  can  have  by  interesting  them 
selves  in  studies  like  Botany,  Mineralogy,  Geology, 
or  Entomology.  What  rich  rewards  in  health, 
strength,  and  pure  intellectual  and  moral  enjoyment 
would  accrue  to  merchants,  mechanics,  lawyers, 
teachers,  and  others  who  lead  sedentary  lives;  if 
they  would  spend  their  leisure  hours  in  the  explora 
tion  of  the  neighborhoods  in  which  they  live  in 
search  of  those  objects  that  so  much  interest  the 
student  of  nature.  A  taste  for  Natural  History,  too, 
may  be  gratified  in  travelling.  Nature  is  so  full  of 


346      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

objects  worthy  our  study,  that  they  present  them- 
selves  to  the  attentive  passenger  even  in  the  swift- 
moving  rail-car.  If  delays  occur,  and  they  will 
occur  in  travelling,  while  others  grow  weary  and 
impatient,  the  naturalist  gives  himself  employment, 
and  keeps  himself  in  good  humour  by  reading  a 
fresh  page  in  the  great  book  of  nature.  He  needs 
no  artificial  help  "to  kill  time,"  for  the  hours  pass 
quickly  when  nature  presents  her  truth  and  her 
beauty  to  his  contemplation. 

It  is  my  purpose  to  speak,  first,  of  methods  of 
teaching  the  Empirical  Sciences  in  General ;  and, 
second,  of  methods  of  teaching  Geography.  The 
reason  I  desire  to  discuss  methods  of  teaching 
Geography  more  particularly,  is  because  it  is  one  of 
the  branches  almost  universally  taught  in  our  Com 
mon  Schools ;  and  because  by  it  can  be  illustrated 
the  methods  of  teaching  the  other  sciences  of  the 
same  class.  Geography,  as  usually  taught  contains 
matter  which  belongs  to  History,  but  this  does  not 
necessitate  any  change  in  methods  of  teaching  it. 

I.  The  Empirical  Sciences  in  General. 

The  foundation  of  the  Empirical  Sciences  is  facts 
and  phenomena  that  are  open  to  observation.  Chil 
dren  begin  to  acquire  these  facts  and  notice  these 
phenomena  as  soon  as  they  can  use  their  senses ; 
and  by  the  time  they  are  five  years  of  age,  their 
stock  of  knowledge  of  this  kind  may  be  made  truly 
wonderful.  Elsewhere,  under  the  head  of  Instruc 
tion  in  the  Elements  of  Knowledge,  an  effort  was 


THE   EMPIKICAL    SCIENCES    IN    GENERAL.     347 

made  to  point  out  the  method  by  which  such  infor 
mation  could  be  pleasantly  imparted  to  children, 
here,  therefore,  on  this  point,  no  detailed  discussion 
will  be  necessary.  I  will  say,  however,  that  I  con 
sider  it  the  main  business  of  teachers  in  Primary 
Schools  to  teach  their  pupils  to  observe,  to  make 
them  acquainted  with  the  facts  and  phenomena  of 
nature.  To  do  this,  nature's  own  method  must  be 
adopted.  A  child  in  a  ramble  over  a  mountain, 
through  a  meadow,  along  a  rivulet,  about  a  grove, 
will  notice  objects  and  may  observe  phenomena  that 
belong  technically  to  all  the  Empirical  Sciences. 
Nature  scatters  her  treasures  in  rich  profusion  every 
where,  and  the  child  picks  them  up  where  he  finds 
them.  His  attention  cannot  be  confined,  without  a 
loss  of  interest,  to  one  class  of  natural  objects,  much 
less  to  the  minute  differences  which  often  distinguish 
genera  and  species,  or  the  scientific  terms  which  are 
applied  to  the  peculiarities  of  individuals.  Yon 
Raumer  in  his  G-eschichte  der  Padagogik  has  some 
excellent  remarks  on  this  subject.  I  quote  from 
Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education  which 
expresses  the  ideas  of  the  author  very  correctly. 
Von  Raumer  says,  "  A  child  commencing  the  study 
of  Natural  Science  should  first  examine,  in  all  direc 
tions,  the  neighborhood  of  his  residence,  and  should 
make  himself  so  thoroughly  acquainted  with  it  that 
he  can  call  it  up  before  his  mind  whenever  he  chooses. 
Such  an  acquaintance  is  the  result  of  the  unconscious 
and  fresh  pleasure  which  youth,  joyful  and  free  from 
scientific  anxieties,  will  find  for  itself  in  such  an 
examination,  obtaining  in  this  artless  way  a  simple 
general  impression  of  the  vicinity,  not  forced  upon 


348       INSTKUCTION    IN   EMPIKICAL    SCIENCES. 

him  artificially  by  a  teacher.  He  is  not  teased,  while 
he  is  rejoicing  in  the  blue  heavens  and  the  rapid 
motions  of  the  clouds,  in  the  oak  woods  and  flowery 
meadows,  where  the  butterflies  play,  by  a  professor 
with  a  cyanometer,  to  measure  the  blue  of  the  sky 
with,  nor  by  a  recommendation  not  to  stare  into  the 
woods,  but  rather  to  ascertain  whether  the  oaks  are 
Quercus  Eobur  or  Quercus  Pedunculata;  or,  not  to 
look  at  the  flowers  in  the  meadow  all  at  once,  as  if 
they  were  a  yellow  carpet,  but  to  take  his  Linnseus 
and  determine  the  species  of  this  ranunculus.  No 
entomologist  is  setting  him  to  chase  butterflies  and 
impale  them.  Neither  is  the  youth,  when  inspired 
to  devotion  by  the  snowy  Alps,  glittering  in  moon 
light,  like  so  many  spiritual,  silvery  forms  of  giants, 
annoyed  by  a  geologist  talking  to  him  of  granite, 
gneiss,  and  limestone,  or  of  the  junction  and  incli 
nation  of  strata.  The  young  enjoy  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  as  a  susceptible  painter  or  an  ingenious 
poet  does.  In  this  first  paradisaic  pleasure  is  planted 
the  seed  of  the  perception  of  an  intellectual  world, 
whose  secrets  \vill  not  be  fully  ascertained  and 
understood  even  after  the  longest  and  most  active 
life  of  scientific  effort.  But  most  teachers,  by  the 
dispersion  of  these  simple  impressions  of  nature, 
forcibly  destroy  these  earliest  pleasures  of  children, 
the  brightness  of  the  imaginary  world  which  they 
see.  Even  the  great  Pestalozzi  falls  into  an  error  on 
this  point,  when  he  says  l  It  is  not  in  the  wroods  or 
meadows  that  the  child  should  be  put,  to  become 
acquainted  with  trees  and  plants.  They  do  not 
there  stand  in  the  order  best  calculated  to  display 
the  characters  of  the  different  families,'  &c.  That 


THE   EMPIKICAL    SCIENCES   IN    GENEKAL.     349 

is,  we  ought  to  take  the  child  into  a  botanic  garden, 
arranged  on  the  Linnsean  system,  so  that  he  may 
study  plants  in  the  order  of  their  species.  To  me 
this  seems  like  saying  that  the  child  ought  not  to 
hear  a  symphony  because  that  would  be  a  mere 
chaos,  of  sounds  to  him;  he  should  rather  have 
played  to  him,  first,  the  first  violin  part,  then  the 
second,  then  the  parts  of  the  bass  viols,  the  flutes, 
clarionets,  trumpets,  &c.  It  is  true  that  in  this  way 
he  would  hear  the  separate  parts,  but  not  the  bond 
of  thought  which  makes  them  a  symphony.  Jahn 
was  much  more  judicious  in  his  gymnastic  walks, 
when  he  said,  not  i  we  are  going  botanizing,  geolo 
gizing,  or  entomologizing,'  but  merely  cwe  are 
going  to  walk.'  How  much  more  naturally  do  our 
youth,  when  the  bird-of-passage  instinct  seizes  them 
at  the  university,  wander  through  the  father-land 
and  rejoice  in  its  grandeur,  and  lay  it  deeply  to  heart, 
without  any  idea  of  a  premature,  and  painful,  and 
usually  repulsive  studying  of  a  particular  subject. 
I  hate  this  analyzing  and  lifeless  elementarizing 
of  the  first  youthful  impressions  of  nature — this 
foolish,  superficial,  heartless,  frivolous  directing  of 
•the  understanding  prematurely  out  of  its  natural 
path — which  is  so  sure  to  chill  the  youthful  heart 
and  render  it  old  before  its  time.  The  utmost 
attainments  of  a  mind  thus  trained  must  be — unless 
aided  by  remarkable  natural  qualities — to  observe 
with  the  bodily  eye ;  to  use  the  reason,  but  not  with 
pleasure  ;  to  derive  mere  lifeless  ideas  from  creation ; 
and  to  represent  the  objects  thus  conceived  in  equally 
lifeless  descriptions,  like  the  ghastly  wax  figures 
which  afford  a  repulsive  imitation  of  living  men  ' 

30 


850       INSTRUCTION"   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

The  sum  of  what  has  been  said  is  that  the  first  in 
struction  of  children  in  the  Empirical  Sciences 
should  mainly  consist  in  exhibiting  to  them  interest 
ing  objects  and  phenomena;  in  allowing  them  to 
look,  handle,  and  ask  questions;  and  in  giving 
opportunity  for  the  free  exercise  of  their  youthful 
imagination.  A  teacher  may  guide  them  in  their 
explorations  of  the  neighborhood,  direct  their  obser 
vations,  make  inquiries,  give  explanations,  conduct 
experiments,  call  things  by  their  right  names;  but 
he  must  be  careful  to  do  it  in  such  a  manner  as  not 
to  check  their  play  of  fancy  or  chill  their  flow  of 
feeling. 

"When  pupils  have  acquired  a  taste  for  the  study 
of  nature,  when  they  have  learned  to  derive  rich 
pleasure  from  a  communion  with  her  rocks,  her 
hills,  her  valleys,  her  flowers,  her  trees,  her  insects, 
and  her  animals ;  when  they  stand  with  breathless 
interest  while  Air  Pump,  Magic  Lantern,  or  Gal 
vanic  Battery  reveals  to  them  some  astonishing 
phenomena,  it  is  time  for  them  to  take  a  second 
step  in  the  course  of  instruction  of  which  we  are 
speaking — to  commence  the  analysis  of  the  objects 
with  which  they  have  become  acquainted  and  the 
study  of  their  several  parts.  This  task  is  heavy 
only  to  those  who  have  no  interest  in  it.  Love  here 
as  everywhere  lightens  labor.  What  then  is  the 
oest  way  of  acquainting  pupils  with  the  particular 
tacts  of  the  Empirical  Sciences  ?  That  is,  how 
shall  they  proceed  to  analyze  the  general  impres 
sions  which  we  now  suppose  them  to  possess  ? 

It  is  well  to  remark  first,  that  the  facts  to  which 
the  attention  of  pupils  is  called  should  be  suited  to 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN    GENERAL.     351 

their  mental  capacity.  Nature  is  a  vast  store-house 
of  facts ;  some  of  which  lie  open  upon  the  surface, 
while  others  are  so  deeply  hidden  that  it  requires 
much  searching  to  find  them  ;  some  are  so  simple 
that  a  child  can  understand  them,  while  others  are 
still  unaccounted  for  by  the  ablest  philosophers. 
Among  such  an  infinite  variety  of  facts,  the  teacher 
will  point  his  class  to  those  which  are  calculated 
to  interest  and  instruct  them.  As  young  children 
are  not  able  to  observe  closely  or  study  much,  they 
cannot  be  confined  to  classes  of  facts  belonging  to 
any  particular  science;  but  must  be  permitted  to 
acquire  knowledge  in  the  same  unsystematic  order, 
if  such  an  expression  is  allowable,  which  nature 
evinces,  when  she  throws  together  rocks,  trees, 
flowers,  birds,  insects,  running  streams,  and  sporting 
fishes.  When  older,  the  attention  can  be  more 
easily  confined  to  facts  belonging  to  the  same  science 
or  subject. 

The  teacher  should  not  rely  upon  verbal  descrip 
tions  of  facts  or  phenomena  when  a  different  course 
is  open  to  him.  The  most  skilful  and  enlivening 
word-painting  makes  a  weak  impression  upon  the 
mind  in  comparison  with  the  real  thing.  The 
eye  seems  to  be  the  most  open  inlet  to  the  soul. 
Hence,  children  delight  in  examining  curiosities  in 
nature  and  art,  in  looking  at  pictures,  and  in  wit 
nessing  experiments.  The  exhibition  of  a  flower, 
a  mineral,  a  shell,  a  fossil,  a  bone,  the  picture  of  a 
strange  animal,  or  the  falling  of  a  feather  and  a 
guinea  in  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  Air  Pump, 
will  convey  better  ideas  to  a  child  at  a  glance  than 
the  most  elaborate  description  of  the  same  things., 


852         INSTRUCTION    IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

Chemistry  and  Natural  Philosophy  require  full  ex- 
periments;  Physiology  can  be  illustrated  by  pre 
senting  the  heart,  stomach,  bones,  &c.,  of  animals 
whose  organic  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  man ; 
Botany,  Mineralogy,  Geology,  and  Zoology,  are 
best  learned  where  rich  cabinets  supply  specimens, 
or  in  the  field ;  and  Psychology  can  only  be  appre 
ciated  by  those  who  closely  observe  the  actions  of 
others,  and  that  which  passes  within  their  own 
minds.  Wherever  possible,  pupils  should  be  re 
quired  to  repeat  the  experimgnts  made  by  the 
teacher,  to  draw  objects,  and  give  written  and  oral 
descriptions  of  them.  When  specimens  are  want 
ing  or  facts  cannot  be  tangibly  presented,  the  un 
known  may  sometimes  be  brought  vividly  before 
the  mind  by  comparing  it  with,  the  known  which 
resembles  it. 

The  pupil  himself  should  be  taught  to  search  for 
facts.  He  should  be  appointed  to  conduct  experi 
ments,  to  make  explorations,  to  give  descriptions 
of  natural  objects.  While  the  vast  majority  of  men 
have  eyes  that  see,  they  do  not  see,  and  ears  that 
hear,  they  do  not  hear,  much  that  takes  place  about 
them.  They  are  blind  and  deaf  to  the  beauty  and 
truth  of  nature.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  awaken 
the  dull  senses  of  his  pupils  from  their  torpor,  and 
send  them  out  to  gather  fresh  facts  from  the  rich 
fields  of  nature  ripe  for  the  harvest.  He  should 
instruct  them  to  make  and  handle  simple  articles 
of  philosophical  apparatus  ;  to  observe  the  phenom 
ena  of  rain,  hail,  snow,  dew,  frost,  ice,  &c. ;  to 
notice  the  habits  of  insects,  the  growth  of  vegeta 
tion,  the  peculiarities  of  animals,  &c. ;  to  visit  ran- 


THE   EMPIRICAL   SCIENCES   IN    GENERAL.    353 

seums  and  menageries,  &c. ;  to  make  excursions 
to  quarries  and  mines,  meadows  and  mountains, 
springs,  rivulets,  and  rivers,  &c.  The  pupils  thus 
learn  to  depend  upon  themselves,  and  not  to  rely 
wholly  for  help  upon  text-book  and  teacher.  If 
pupils  can  be  taught  to  find  pleasure  in  collecting 
facts,  the  work  of  teaching  them  is  almost  done; 
for  to  such,  science  is  itself  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day 
and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night  to  guide  them  onward. 
The  third  step  in  a  course  of  study  in  the  Em 
pirical  Sciences,  is  the  classification  of  facts.  Indi 
vidual  facts  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  impossible 
to  make  much  progress  in  the  study  of  the  Empir 
ical  Science  without  the  use  of  classification.  In 
the  infancy  of  science,  classifications  were  founded 
upon  adventitious  circumstances ;  but  as  further 
discoveries  were  made  such  classifications  gave 
way  to  others  founded  upon  inherent  relationships. 
Guided  by  an  intelligent  teacher,  pupils  can  be 
taught  to  classify  objects  properly,  commencing  of 
course  with  objects  whose  resemblances  are  obvious 
and  passing  on  gradually  to  others  in  which  they 
are  more  hidden.  Many  classes  among  plants, 
minerals,  insects,  and  animals  can  be  determined 
by  the  general  appearance  of  the  individuals  compo 
sing  them.  I  have  succeeded  best  in  imparting  an 
idea  of  classification  by  descending  from  the  general 
to  the  particular,  from  the  class  to  the  individual. 
My  pupils  have  not  experienced  much  difficulty, 
after  having  seen  a  few  specimens  of  the  Umbel- 
liferse  or  Violacese  and  heard  their  characteristics 
described,  in  finding  the  right  place  for  other  indi 
vidual  plants  belonging  to  these  Orders;  and,  so  I 

30* 


£54       INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

think  it  would  be  with  the  Quartz  family  among 
Minerals,  the  Asteriadse  among  Radiates,  the  Ce- 
phalopods  among  Mollusks,  the  Lepidoptera  among 
Insects,  the  Ophidians  among  Reptiles,  the  Gralla- 
tores  among  Birds,  the  Ilodentia  among  Mammals, 
and  hundreds  of  other  orders,  classes,  genera,  and 
species  equally  well  marked.  The  same  method 
of  teaching  is  applicable  to  the  classes  of  facts  and 
phenomena  belonging  to  Astronomy,  Chemistry, 
Natural  Philosophy,  Psychology,  and  other  similar 
sciences.  The  only  difference  is  that  the  principle 
of  classification  is  not  made  so  prominent  in  these 
sciences  as  in  those  previously  referred  to. 

These  remarks  are  made  in  full  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  lines  separating  the  divisions  which  have 
been  made  in  the  sciences  are  sometimes  very  ob 
scure.  Men  who  have  made  certain  sciences  a  life 
long  study  are  not  always  agreed  about  them.  But 
the  judicious  teacher  will  confine  his  pupil  in  the 
beginning  to  the  study  of  those  classes  which  are 
most  easily  determined,  and  afterwards,  when  pre 
pared,  he  can  enter  into  the  "  debatable  ground"  of 
the  subject. 

In  making  original  classifications,  it  may  be  well 
to  remark  that  a  sufficient  number  of  facts  should 
be  collected  before  it  is  safe  to  form  classes ;  that  in 
forming  classes,  permanent  and  inherent  relation 
ships  only  should  be  regarded ;  that  artificial  systems 
should  be  wholly  discarded ;  and  that  genera  and 
species  should  be  discriminated  by  never-failing 
marks. 

A  fourth  step  in  a  course  of  study  in  the  Empirical 
Sciences  is  the  inferring  of  laws  or  principles.  The 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN   GENERAL.      355 

collection  and  classification  of  facts  constitute  only 
the  introductory  parts  of  the  Empirical  Sciences. 
Connecting  principles  must  be  found  to  bind  these 
classes  together  into  systems.  Counting  stamens, 
marking  spots,  measuring  scales,  or  observing 
phenomena  in  general,  is  not  science.  Nothing 
takes  place  without  law.  We  can  only  notice 
effects,  their  causes  must  be  inferred.  We  have  the 
consequents,  but  must  find  the  antecedents.  This 
process  is  called  inductive  reasoning;  and  the  ques 
tion  now  is,  how  shall  pupils  be  taught  to  reason  in 
that  way. 

A  child  reasons  inductively  when  he  learns  that 
the  hot  stove  burns  his  hand,  that  snow  makes  it 
cold,  that  a  lump  of  sugar  dissolves  when  placed  in 
a  cup  of  tea.  In  all  these  instances,  the  antecedent 
and  consequent  appear  close  together;  a  child  has 
no  difficulty  in  making  the  connection.  With  young 
children,  the  teacher  must  imitate  this  method  ;  and, 
when  nature  conceals  the  consequent  or  places  it 
at  a  distance  from  the  antecedent,  he  must  show 
their  relation  by  carefully  planned  experiments  and 
judiciously  chosen  illustrations.  More  advanced 
pupils,  of  course,  need  less  help. 

Text-books  on  certain  of  the  Empirical  Sciences 
sometimes  present  facts  and  afterwards  state  the 
principle  involved,  and  sometimes  announce  the 
principle  and  then  explain  it  by  reference  to  the 
facts  from  which  it  was  deduced.  In  building  up  a 
new  science,  the  former  method  is  the  only  safe  one; 
but  in  teaching,  either  may  be  legitimately  followed. 
The  statement  of  a  proposition,  in  treating  of  an 
Empirical  Science  before  the  facts  which  prove  it 


356        INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

have  been  presented,  is  merely  a  matter  of  conveai 
ence,  and  does  not  essentially  change  the  method  oi 
reasoning  which  is  from  the  particular  to  the  general 
Teachers  will  find  it  an  interesting  exercise  to  en 
gage  their  pupils  in  deducing  principles  from  given 
facts,  and  in  accounting  for  certain  facts  by  known 
principles. 

It  is  proper  to  add  that  inductions  should  be  made 
with  much  caution.  Both  teacher  and  pupil  must 
be  actuated  by  a  sincere  desire  to  obtain  the  truth 
— to  interpret  nature  correctly.  Hypotheses  may 
be  assumed,  but  they  must  be  considered  only  as 
hypotheses  until  carefully  tested  by  facts.  The 
moment  a  teacher  makes  prominent  some  facts 
while  he  conceals  others  or  distorts  them  through 
prejudice  or  preconceived  opinions,  the  moment  he 
adopts  an  hypothesis  and  begins  to  enforce  it  dog 
matically,  he  becomes  a  false  teacher  and  does  his 
pupils  a  great  wrong.  Hasty  generalizations  have 
been  the  bane  of  science.  The  progress  of  the  race 
has  been  greatly  retarded  by  the  resistance  new 
truth  has  met  from  old  opinions.  A  teacher  had 
better  communicate  his  facts  and  then  tell  his  pupils 
to  doubt  in  regard  to  their  explanation,  than  to  lead 
them  into  errors.  Intelligent  skepticism  in  matters 
of  science  is  better  than  blind  faith.  He  best 
studies  nature  who  does  it  with  a  sincere  desire  to 
find  the  truth,  and  is  willing  to  accept  what  he  finds. 
Let  no  one  be  misled  by  "  idols  of  the  tribe,"  "  idols 
of  the  den,"  "  idols  of  the  market,"  or  "idols  of  the 
theatre."  In  searching  for  causes  be  sure  that  no 
active  element  lurks  in  the  antecedent  for  which 
allowance  is  not  made,  and  that  which  see  jas  to  be 


THE    EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES   IN    GENERAL.      357 

the  consequent  is  not  wholly  or  in  part  a  mere  con 
tingency.  The  prominent  elements  in  the  character 
of  a  successful  student  of  the  Empirical  Sciences  are 
an  enthusiastic  love  of  nature  and  the  most  careful 
circumspection  in  its  investigation. 

The  process  which,  after  Mill,  may  be  called  the 
"  Concrete  Deductive  Method,"  forms  the  fifth  step 
in  learning  an  Empirical  Science.  This  method 
consists  in  bringing  new  facts  or  new  phenomena 
under  laws  already  ascertained  inductively,  or  in 
determining  the  effect  of  such  laws  in  new  circum 
stances.  Comparatively  few  new  laws  have  of  late 
been  discovered  i*i  the  Empirical  Sciences,  but  the 
laws  already  discovered  have  received  a  much  more 
extended  application.  The  tendency  of  science  now 
is  to  simplify  laws,  and  to  multiply  facts.  New 
effects  are  being  constantly  deduced  from  laws  long 
since  known.  In  this,  indeed,  consist  mainly  the 
triumphs  of  modern  science.  Such  a  standpoint 
has  been  reached  by  some  of  our  best  Naturalists 
that  certain  facts  have  been  anticipated  long  before 
their  actual  discovery. 

When  pupils  reach  this  stage  of  progress  in  their 
course  of  study,  they  will  need  little  prompting  to 
push  forward.  Knowing  laws  and  the  facts  from 
which  these  laws  were  inferred,  they  will  naturally 
feel  an  interest  in  testing  their  validity  in  new  cir 
cumstances.  Our  text-books  which  treat  of  the 
Empirical  Sciences  should  contain  many  facts  and 
phenomena  arranged  miscellaneously,  in  order  that 
pupils  might  have  exercise  in  accounting  for  them ; 
or  nature  herself  might  be  used  as  the  text-book. 
A  pupil  has  but  to  go  forth  with  his  eyes  open,  and 


358        INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL   SCIEFCES. 

nature  everywhere,  above,  around,  beneath,  will  ask 
him  to  apply  the  scientific  principles  he  may  have 
learned.  Hardly  anywhere  as  yet  do  teachers 
estimate  as  highly  as  they  should  the  value  of 
scientific  experiments.  First  made  acquainted  with 
laAvs  by  such  experiments,  pupils  should  be  allowed 
to  witness  their  effects  in  other  circumstances  —  to 
repeat  them,  and  to  plan  others  for  themselves. 

There  is  a  sixth  step  that  must  be  taken  before  a 
course  of  study  in  the  Empirical  Sciences  can  be  con 
sidered  as  completed.     The  observation  of  facts,  the 
generalizations  of  experience,  and  the  extension  of 
known  laws  do  not  constitute  the  whole  of  science. 
Eternal,  universal,  and  necessary  principles  control 
all  facts  and  all  inductions  from  facts.     It  is  thus 
with  mathematical,  logical,  and  metaphysical  prin 
ciples.      Aristotle    says:    "The    general   principles 
necessary  to  knowledge  are  axioms/''    An  Empirical 
Science   is   like  a  ladder,  it  needs  support  at  both 
ends — it  cannot  account  either  for  the  existence  of 
facts,  or  for  the  genesis  of  the  ideas  which  embrace 
them.     Take  an  example  :  heat  expands  iron  ;  heat 
expands  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  &c.     These  are 
facts,  and  we  infer  from  them  that  "  Heat  expands 
all  metals."     So  far  inductive  science  will  take  us; 
but  mark  the  queries  concerning  the  matter  which 
remain  unanswered :  Are  we  sure   that  all  metals 
are  expanded  by  heat?     In  concluding  affirmatively, 
what  is  the   nature  of  the   principle  we   take   for 
granted?     How  do  we  become  cognizant  of  such 
things   as   metals?     How  do  we  know  one   metal 
from  another?     "Why  do  metals  exist?     Empirical 
Science  is  powerless  in  dealing  with  such  questions 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN"   GENERAL.      359 

as  these,  and  yet  similar  problems  lie  about  every 
inductive  syllogism.  The  Inductive  Philosophy  in 
its  own  field  has  blessed  mankind  with  rich  fruit ; 
but  unaccompanied  by  the  recognition  of  a  higher 
philosophy,  it  would  leave  us  without  a  personal 
Deity,  without  a  united  plan  in  creation,  and  would 
lead  us  finally  into  the  dry  Skepticism  of  Hume, 
the  soulless  Positivism  of  Comte,  the  philosophical 
Pantheism  of  Spinoza,  the  cold  Logic  of  Mill,  or 
the  weak  faith  of  Buckle. 

The  teacher  who  develops  the  Empirical  Sciences 
in  their  higher  departments,  will  be  false  1o  his 
trust  if  he  does  not  exhibit  to  his  pupils  their  limita 
tions — if  he  does  not  show  them  what  these  sciences 
can  accomplish,  and  where  they  must  fail.  The 
creation  is  the  expression  of  an  idea — is  a  thought 
embodied  in  matter.  The  great  end  of  Empirical 
Science  is,  through  facts  and  inferences,  to  reach 
this  idea,  and  use  it  in  the  further  interpretation  of 
nature.  The  idea  is  not  derived  by  any  induction ; 
but  it  is  produced  in  the  reason  upon  the  occasion 
of  some  experience.  Says  Hickok,  "  Till  we  attain 
this  eternal  principle,  which,  as  a  living  law,  the 
Maker  of  the  universe  has  diffused  all  through  it 
from  centre  to  circumference,  we  may  stand  outside 
and  measure  and  weigh,  and  overwhelm  the  un 
derstanding  with  the  summations  of  arithmetical 
reckonings,  but  we  shall  know  nothing  of  that  cen 
tral  working  which  makes  and  holds  all  in  one 
concrete  cosmos  of  perpetual  beauty  and  harmony." 
No  greater  harm  could  be  done  to  the  human  spirit 
than  to  teach  it  that  all  sure  knowledge  must  be 
based  on  facts  patent  to  the  senses.  It  would  be  to 


360       INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

dethrone  God  and  cast  the  human  intellect  out  upon 
a  sea  that  has  no  shore,  and  from  which  no  hope 
could  lift  the  soul  to  Heaven. 

Faithful  to  the  study  of  nature,  a  few  men  of 
genius  have  mounted  like  Moses  to  the  top  of 
Mount  Pi?  yah,  up  through  facts  and  inferences, 
until,  as  a  reward  for  their  devotion,  glimpses  of 
the  divine  plan  in  creation  were  flashed  into  their 
minds,  and  praising  God,  they  gave  the  heaven-horn 
truth  to  raen,  by  whom  the  revelation  will  be 
cherished  until  the  end  of  their  generations.  I 
hardly  dare  to  name — but  among  those  that  must 
be  named,  are  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Kepler,  Newton, 
and  our  own  Agassiz.  These,  and  such  as  these, 
hear  the  "  Music  of  the  Spheres ;"  discern  the  "  Soul 
of  the  world  ;"  "  Think  God's  thoughts  after  him  ;" 
"  Count  themselves  little  children — standing  on  the 
shore  playing  with  the  pebbles,  while  the  great  ocean 
of  truth  lies  spread  out  before  them ;"  and  recog 
nize  the  "Facts  of  the  world  as  the  words  of  God." 

This  view  of  the  steps  necessary  in  a  course  of 
study  in  the  Empirical  Sciences  is  strongly  confirmed 
by  the  history  of  their  progress.  A  careful  student 
may  mark  this  progress  by  several  distinct  stages 
of  growth. 

First,  the  Poetic  Stage. — The  attention  of  unculti 
vated  men  is  first  attracted  to  objects  by  some 
quality  which  pleases  their  fancy  or  arouses  their 
feelings.  The  African  savage  may  deck  his  person 
with  gaudy  ostrich-feathers,  the  Arab  may  pitch  his 
tent  near  some  palm  not  only  to  enjoy  protection 
from  its  shade  but  pleasure  from  its  beauty,  the 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN   GENERAL.     861 

Indians  of  our  own  country  may  linger  on  some 
mountain  summit  to  gaze  at  the  river  which  windj 
jalong  far  below  them,  the  lake  which  nestles  -among 
the  hills,  or  the  glories  of  the  setting  sun;  and  in 
each,  it  is  easy  to  see  the  awakening  of  that  interest 
ill  nature  which  in  more  highly  civilized  conditions 
of  society  will  lead  to  study  and  knowledge.  The 
Mythologies  of  the  East  are  largely  indebted  for 
what  in  them  is  beautiful  to  this  poetic  interest  in 
nature  which  characterizes  peoples  who  have  not 
made  much  progress  in  scientilic  knowledge.  The 
most  enlightened  nations  have  had  their  ages  of 
Fable,  in  which  they  personified  the  objects  and 
powers  of  nature,  and  filled  caves,  and  groves,  and 
air,  and  waters,  with  creations  of  their  lively  fancies. 
It  is  not  very  difficult  to  see  that  the  mental  condi 
tion  of  men  then  was  like  that  of  children  now. 

Second,  the  Mystic  Stage. — AVondering  at  the 
marvels  which  nature  was  constantly  forcing  upon 
their  attention,  men  could  not  long  withstand  the 
temptation  of  trying  to  account  for  them.  They 
could  not  but  see  that  certain  consequents  followed 
certain  antecedents,  and  the  inquiry  would  become 
very  natural  as  to  whether  this  was  always  the  case. 
Curious,  indeed,  would  be  that  history  which  re 
counted  the  efforts  made  by  the  human  intellect  to 
find  causes  for  the  facts  it  observed.  It  may  easily 
be  supposed  that  the  first  inquirers  would  hurry  to 
their  conclusions,  and  that  these  conclusions  would 
generally  be  mere  guesses,  contradictory  and  mys- 
tLal.  The  ancient  Hindoos,  Persians,  and  Egyptians 
had  their  fanciful  Cosmogonies ;  the  speculative 

31 


362       INSTRUCTION    IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

Greeks  found  the  principle  of  the  universe  in  water, 
air,  tire,  and  they  placed  the  Titan,  Atlas,  under  the 
earth  to  upbear  it  on  his  shoulders ;  and  the  Middle 
Age  Mystics  found  a  ready  explanation  for  physical 
phenomena  in  supernatural  causes.  Both  good  and 
evil  spirits  play  an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of 
men  and  the  ongoings  of  nature,  while  nations  are 
passing  through  the  stage  of  progress  now  referred 
to.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  children  will  now 
exhibit  similar  mental  tendencies;  but  it  is  time 
that  full  grown  men  in  enlightened  countries  should 
have  passed  beyond  the  stage  of  progress  which  we 
have  called  the  Mystic. 

Third,  the  Observational  Stage. — Dissatisfied  with 
the  small  return  of  fruit  resulting  from  purely  ideal 
speculations,  students  of  nature  began  slowly  and 
patiently  to  accumulate  facts.  Different  observers 
explore  the  whole  field  of  the  Empirical  Sciences — 
they  experiment  at  home  and  travel  abroad,  and  the 
treasures  of  thousands  of  volumes  attest  their  in 
dustry.  All  feel  that  they  have  now  struck  the  right 
path;  and  the  faithful  teacher  must  follow  in  it. 

Fourth,  the  Clasmficatory  Stag?,. — Facts  accumu 
late;  the  memory  is  overburdened ;  the  reaping  of 
the  rich  harvests  seems  threatened  to  be  stopped 
for  wrant  of  barns  in  which  to  store  the  products. 
The  necessity  of  classification  is  felt,  and  efforts  are 
soon  made  to  arrange  the  abundant  material  into 
classes.  External  resemblances  or  adventitious  cir 
cumstances  determine  the  first  divisions  into  clashes; 
but  soon  more  hidden  relationships  are  observed, 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN    GENERAL.     363 

and,  in  the  light  of  these,  better  systems  of  classifi 
cation  are  adopted  and  the  great  mass  of  material 
becomes  moulded  into  manageable  shape. 

Fifth,  the  Inductive  Stage. — Classification  of  facts 
and  phenomena  could  not  well  be  made  without 
starting  inquiries  as  to  the  causes  which  govern 
them,  and,  when  once  the  search  for  these  began, 
natural  curiosity  would  prompt  its  vigorous  prose 
cution.  The  fanciful  guesses  of  the  Mystic  Stage 
of  progress  proceed  from  the  same  mental  powers 
that  give  birth  to  the  slow  and  careful  generaliza 
tions  of  the  Inductive  Stage  ;  but  during  the  former, 
men  leap  to  their  conclusions  without  waiting  to 
test  them  by  an  appeal  to  facts.  The  spirit  of  in 
quiry  since  the  time  of  Bacon  has  been  inductive. 
Guided  by  this  method,  earnest  investigators  have 
searched  the  earth,  the  air,  and  the  heavens,  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms;  and  rich  indeed 
has  been  their  reward.  Laws  have  been  found,  and 
superstitious  influences  have  been  discarded.  JSTot 
only  have  busy  hands  revealed  nature's  curious 
hieroglyphics ;  but  many  a  Champollion  has  decy- 
phered  them.  The  laws  derived  by  induction  may 
be  very  simple  and  applicable  only  to  special  cases, 
or  they  may  be  broad  enough,  like  the  law  of  gravi 
tation,  to  comprehend  the  whole  universe ;  but  all 
safe  inferences  must  be  founded  upon  systematically 
arranged  facts. 

Sixth,  the  Demonstrative  Stage.  —  Generalizations 
are  often  made  in  the  Empirical  Sciences  long  be- 
tore  all  the  facts  which  are  embraced  by  them  have 


364:      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

been  ascertained.  Indeed,  it  is  not  possible  to  bring 
all  the  facts  embraced  by  a  single  generalization 
within  the  limits  of  human  experience,  for  that  ex 
perience  is  finite  and  nature  is  infinite.  But  the 
laws  of  nature  are  uniform  in  their  operations;  and 
we  feel  quite  sure  when  we  ascertain  a  law  applica 
ble  to  several  of  the  members  of  a  class,  it  is  true 
of  the  whole  class,  or  when  the  tendency  of  a  cause 
is  to  produce  a  certain  effect  in  one  set  of  circum 
stances  its  tendency  will  be  to  produce  the  same 
effect  under  other  circumstances.  It  follows  that  in 
ductions  may  be  made,  and  then  used  in  the  search  for 
additional  facts  or  in  the  interpretation  of  different 
phenomena.  We  may  even  anticipate  the  existence 
of  unknown  facts.  By  a  kind  of  demonstration  we 
can  prove  that  newly  discovered  gases  must  be  sub 
ject  to  the  law  of  chemical  affinity,  that  the  fossil 
plants  or  animals,  just  obtained  from  the  strata  of 
an  unknown  formation  must  exhibit  the  same  plan 
of  growth  and  structure  as  those  to  which  we  have 
been  accustomed,  or  that  the  law  of  gravitation 
extends  its  influence  to  the  remotest  star  just  re 
vealed  by  the  powerful  aid  of  modern  Telescopes; 
and  the  same  method  is  applicable  to  all  depart 
ments  of  science. 

From  its  very  nature  it  is  clear  that  the  Inductive 
Stage  of  an  Empirical  Science  must  have  preceded 
the  Demonstrative  Stage,  and  the  history  of  all 
such  sciences,  is  full  of  confirmatory  evidence. 
Even  now  the  most  able  Physicists  are  laboring  in 
this  stage,  and  the  fruit  gathered  seems  to  show 
that  the  harvest  is  but  ripening. 


THE   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES    IN    GENERAL      365 

Seventh,  the  Philosophic  Stage. — By  our  senses  we 
observe  facts,  by  means  of  the  understanding  we 
classify  them  and  make  inductions  from  them  ;  but 
these  faculties  can  never  give  us  the  universal  prin 
ciples  which  condition  both  the  facts  and  the  induc 
tions.  The  atoms  of  matter  may  unite  in  certain 
definite  proportions,  the  various  organs  of  plants 
may  be  metamorphosed  leaves,  bodies  may  attract 
one  another  according  to  certain  fixed  laws;  but 
there  are  reasons  why  all  these  things  are  so,  and 
just  so  far  as  these  reasons  can  be  attained  have  we 
what  may  truly  be  called  a  Philosophy.  He  who 
observes  the  most  facts  and  makes  the  broadest 
generalizations,  will  be  best  prepared  to  discern  the 
eternal  principles  according  to  which  the  universe 
was  made.  Reaching  a  certain  standpoint,  these 
principles  appear  to  the  sincere  investigator  of  na 
ture,  as  the  intuitions  of  the  reason  or  as  the  per 
ceptions  of  the  quick  eye  of  faith. 

Eighth,  the  ^Esthetic  Stage. — Nature  has  beautiea 
which  lie  upon  the  surface.  They  serve  to  attract 
attention.  Nearly  all  persons,  both  young  and  old, 
derive  enjoyment  from  them.  Even  the  savage  stops 
to  gaze  from  some  mountain  summit  upon  the  sleep 
ing  lake  or  the  setting  sun,  and  the  little  child  claps 
its  hands  in  delight  when  wandering  about  a  garden 
of  flowers  or  gazing  at  the  richly-colored  rainbow. 
But  all  this  Beauty  bears  little  comparison  to  that 
which  ravishes  his  soul  who  has  gazed  upon  na 
ture's  teeming  facts,  who  has  constrrcted  them 
into  orderly  systems,  who  has  formed  comprehen 
sive  generalizations,  and  who  has  at  last  caught 

31* 


366      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

glimpses  of  the  eternal  principles  that  are  the 
archetypes  after  which  things  were  made.  It  is  a 
great  mistake  to  suppose  that  those  who  are  most 
ignorant  of  nature's  works  exhibit  the  most  admi 
ration  for  them.  Study,  indeed,  sometimes  curbs 
the  light  play  of  fancy  and  banishes  forever  her 
airy  creations ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  reveals  ten 
thousand  real  beauties  of  which  the  untutored  poet 
never  dreamed.  All  true  art  presupposes  the  highest 
conceptions  of  science;  and  he  alone  can  drink  in 
the  full  measure  of  nature's  beauties  who  is  able  to 
comprehend  the  divine  plan  in  the  creation. 

Ninth,  the  Religious  Stage.  —  In  the  earliest  states 
of  civilization,  men  must  have  felt  that  there  is  a 
power  above  nature.  The  mind  of  the  poor  Indian 
"Sees  God  in  clouds  or  hears  him  in  the  wind." 
Much  of  the  ancient  Mythology  had  its  origin  in 
the  attempt  to  find  God  in  some  object  of  the  visible 
creation  or  in  some  power  that  is  manifested  through 
it.  Every  event  was  regarded  as  a  miracle.  A 
darkened  understanding  prevented  the  Heathen 
world  from  discriminating  between  the  Maker  and 
the  thing  made.  The  most  enlightened  of  these 
nations  could  do  no  more  than  erect  an  altar  to  the 
"  Unknown  God."  Individual  instances  there  were, 
of  persons  who  seemed  to  apprehend  a  personal 
Deity,  but  they  were  such  as  had  closely  studied 
nature  and  themselves.  All  past  history  goes  to 
show  that  those  who  have  numbered  the  great 
variety  of  objects  which  nature  contains,  who  have 
witnessed  the  working  of  her  grand  machinery, 
who  have  noticed  the  "  foot-prints  of  the  Creator" 


GEOGRAPHY.  367 

in  nicely  adjusting  means  to  ends,  who  have  marked 
the  order  that  everywhere  prevails  and  enjoyed  the 
beauty  that  adorns  the  whole,  and  who  have  care 
fully  inspected  the  revelations  of  their  own  minds, 
possess,  other  things  being  equal,  the  most  adequate 
ideas  of  the  Great  Being  who  created  the  heavens 
and  the  earth  and  all  that  in  them  is,  and  pro 
nounced  it  very  good.  "The  heavens  declare  the 
glory  of  God;  and  the  firmament  sheweth  his 
handiwork."  God  has  revealed  himself  in  the 
Bible ;  but  he  has  also  left  his  name  labeled  upon 
all  his  works  and  he  who  will  may  read  it  there, 
''For  the  invisible  things  of  him  from  the  creation 
f  the  world  are  clearly  seen,  being  understood  by 
he  things  that  are  made,  even  his  eternal  power 
and  Godhead."  The  highest  end  of  the  study 
of  nature  is  to  find  God  in  his  works.  The  true 
philosopher  finds  Him,  and  his  longing  soul  is 
satisfied. 

II.  Geography. 

Geography  treats  generally  of  the  aspects  of  na 
ture  and  the  works  of  man,  and  the  causes  which 
have  produced  or  modified  them.  Its  elementary 
facts  as  they  relate  to  nature  have  the  same  basis 
as  the  Empirical  sciences  ;  and  its  elementary  facts 
as  they  relate  to  man  have  the  same  basis  as  the 
Historical  Sciences ;  but,  in  its  higher  departments, 
it  may  present  the  broadest  generalizations  of  both. 
The  difference  between  it  and  any  special  Natural 
or  Political  Science  is  that  its  object-matter  com 
prehends  a  much  greater  variety  of  facts  and  prin 
«aples.  Geography  is  not  so  much  a  science  in 


368        INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL   SCIENCES. 

itself  as  it  is  a  collection  of  matter  belonging  to  a 
number  of  sciences. 

The  word  Geography  means  a  description  of  the 
earth ;  and  a  description  of  the  earth  is  understood 
to  include  the  changes  man  has  wrought  upon  it. 
This  meaning  defines  sufficiently  well  the  Geogra 
phical  matter  that  appears  in  many  of  our  text 
books  on  the  subject;  but  Geography  must  now 
be  considered  not  merely  as  a  narrative  of  facts  but 
as  a  system  of  principles  controlling  the  facts. 

Geography  is  easily  divisible  into  two  kinds; 
that  which  relates  to  Nature ;  and  that  which 
relates  to  Man.  The  first  is  called  Physical  Ge 
ography;  and  the  second,  Political  Geography 
The  terms  Mathematical,  Historical,  Descriptive, 
Local,  &c.,  as  applied  to  Geography  do  not  repre 
sent  distinct  divisions  of  the  subject.  If  we  follow 
the  order  of  cause  and  effect,  we  must  first  speak 
of  Physical  Geography,  and  afterwards  of  Political 
Geography ;  but  the  teacher  will  find  that  he  can 
best  illustrate  the  subject  and  do  more  to  create  an 
interest  in  it  on  the  part  of  his  class,  if  he  combine 
the  two,  and  teach  both  together.  Causes  and 
their  effects  will  thus  be  brought  before  the  mind 
at  one  view  and  their  relationship  can  be  more 
readily  shown.  If  this  were  otherwise,  no  neces 
sity  would  arise  for  a  corresponding  division  here, 
inasmuch  as  the  same  pedagogical  principles  apply 
to  the  one  as  to  the  other. 

Many  of  our  text-books  on  Geography  adopt  a 
very  imperfect  method  of  presenting  the  subject. 
They  generally  commence  with  some  pages  of  defi 
nitions  concerning  the  planetary  relations  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  369 

earth,  the  general  divisions  of  land  and  water,  lati 
tude  and  longitude,  zones,  government,  races  of 
men,  stages  of  civilization,  kinds  of  religion,  changes 
of  seasons,  &c. ;  all  of  which  it  is  impossible  for  a 
child  to  understand.  Such  lessons  as  these  with 
others  upon  maps  which  are  to  the  learner  "  a  mere 
set  of  marks,  without  any  equivalent  conception  in 
the  mind  of  the  thing  represented,"  make  the  whole 
work  a  dull,  dragging  process ;  or,  at  the  best,  can 
only  crowd  the  memory  with  forms  of  words,  and 
images  of  dots,  and  lines,  and  ridges,  which  have 
little  meaning.  By  and  by,  it  is  true,  a  healthy 
mental  organization  asserts  its  right  to  acquire 
knowledge  in  a  rational  way,  and  Geography  may 
then  be  learned,  not  in  accordance  with  this  method, 
but  in  spite  of  it. 

In  teaching  Geography,  as  in  teaching  all  other 
studies,  the  teacher  must  first  ascertain  what  know 
ledge  his  pupils  already  possess  concerning  the  sub 
ject,  and  then  make  them  familiar  in  a  natural  way 
with  such  new  matter  as  may  be  most  closely  con 
nected  with  it.  The  mind  makes  progress  in  know- 
ledge  only  by  the  process  of  assimilating  the  un 
known  to  the  known.  A  child  will  have  attained 
by  the  time  he  is  eight  years  of  age,  a  knowledge 
of  many  Geographical  facts  relating  to  the  neigh 
borhood  about  his  home  or  his  school.  He  will 
have  seen  water  bubbling  up  from  the  earth  in 
springs,  and  running  away  in  rivulets ;  he  will  have 
walked  up  hills,  and  wandered  about  valleys;  he 
will  have  noticed  villages,  and  may  have  visited  the 
market-town,  the  mill,  shops,  and  manufactories  — 
watched  cars  move  on  a  railroad,  or  ships  sail  on  a 


370        INSTKUCTION   IN   EMPIKICAL    SCIENCES. 

river;  he  will  have  become  familiar  with  many 
plants,  animals,  reptiles,  and  insects;  and  with  the 
general  appearance  of  rain,  hail,  snow,  ice,  and 
frost;  and  possibly  may  have  learned  the  names  of 
some  of  the  rocks  and  soils.  This  and  other  know 
ledge  like  this  is  what  the  pupil  knows  when  he 
begins  the  study  of  Geography,  and  nothing  can  be 
more  evident  than  that  his  instruction  must  start 
at  this  point. 

If  the  proper  place  of  beginning  has  now  been 
found,  it  remains  our  task  to  arrange  the  object- 
matter  of  Geography,  and  exhibit  the  proper 
methods  of  making  pupils  acquainted  with  it.  I 
know  no  better  way  of  doing  this  than  by  present 
ing  a  classified  series  of  lessons.  These  lessons  are 
intended  to  follow  a  natural  order  of  progression, 
and  to  include  all  the  essential  parts  of  the  science 
of  Geography.  Each  class  of  lessons  may  embrace 
matter  sufficient  for  many  individual  lessons. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  LESSONS. — On  Objects  relating  t) 
Geography,  which  Pupils  can  observe  for  themselves. — 
The  lessons  to  be  given  here  are  designed  to  extend 
the  knowledge  already  in  possession  of  the  pupils 
by  a  method  but  little  different  from  that  by  which 
it  was  acquired.  Nature  is  the  only  text-book 
needed.  Lessons  may  be  given  about  the  general 
aspects  of  a  neighborhood — its  hills,  valleys,  water 
courses,  forests ;  and,  if,  perchance,  the  school-house 
is  located  near  a  mountain,  lake,  river,  or  the  ocean's 
shore,  these  objects  will  be  an  unfailing  source  of 
interest.  The  attention  of  pupils  may  be  directed 
to  the  different  kinds  of  land  —  farm-land,  wi>od- 


GEOGRAPHY.  371 

land,  meadow-land,  level,  hilly,  and  rolling  land; 
to  the  different  objects  composed  of  water — springs, 
brooks,  creeks,  ponds,  dams ;  to  the  different  kinds 
of  soils — clay,  sand,  gravel,  vegetable  mould ;  to  the 
different  kinds  of  stone — quartz,  sandstone,  granite, 
slate,  limestone,  iron-ore ;  to  the  different  kinds  of 
trees — pine,  oak,  hickory,  chestnut,  poplar,  ash ;  to 
the  different  kinds  of  productions  of  the  neighbor 
hood —  corn,  potatoes,  rice,  cotton,  wheat,  grass; 
to  garden  flowers  and  wild  flowers ;  to  domestic 
animals  and  wild  animals ;  to  reptiles  and  insects ; 
to  rain,  snow,  dew ;  to  the  changes  of  the  seasons ; 
to  villages  and  towns;  to  the  employments  of  the 
people;  to  shops,  mills, manufactories,  stores,  school- 
houses,  and  churches. 

It  is  the  design  of  this  enumeration  of  particulars 
to  indicate  to  the  teacher  the  sources  from  which 
he  may  obtain  the  materials  for  his  first  class  of 
lessons  in  Geography.  His  own  ingenuity  must 
suggest  which  subject  of  those  mentioned,  or  of 
other  like  subjects  not  mentioned,  is  most  appro 
priate  for  any  particular  lesson.  In  giving  this 
kind  of  instruction  to  young  pupils,  no  strictly 
scientific  discussion  is  expected  or  desirable.  They 
should  be  taught  those  things  in  which  they  can  be 
made  to  feel  an  interest ;  and  this  interest  can  be 
greatly  increased  by  placing  the  object  of  the  lesson 
before  them  in  the  school-house,  or  them  before  the 
object  out  of  the  school-house.  Minerals,  flowers, 
shells,  fossils,  &c.,  may  be  brought  into  the  school- 
house ;  and  the  teacher  and  pupils  may  visit 
woods,  meadows,  mines,  quarries,  gardens,  ruins, 
&c.  These  lessons,  indeed,  are  Geographical  Object 


372       INSTRUCTION    IN    EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

Lessons,  and  they  should  be  given  in  the  same  mode 
and  with  the  same  spirit  as  other  Object  Lessons. 

SECOND  CLASS  or  LESSONS. — On  similar  Objects 
which  can  be  found  only  in  Localities  distant  from  the 
School. — Lessons  on  objects  which  they  can  see 
would  prepare  children  to  receive  lessons  on  similar 
objects  which  they  cannot  see.  In  imparting  such 
lessons,  the  teacher  must  rely  upon  comparisons 
made  with  things  known,  descriptions,  and  pictorial 
illustrations.  The  names  of  the  countries  in  which 
the  objects  are  found  may  be  given;  but  the  time 
has  not  come  for  formal  instruction  in  regard  to  the 
relative  positions  of  countries  as  exhibited  upon 
maps. 

Suppose  the  school-house  in  which  these  lessons 
are  given  is  in  Pennsylvania ;  then,  the  teacher  may 
describe  the  natural  features  of  countries  unlike 
Pennsylvania — deserts,  prairies,  countries  very  cold 
or  very  warm,  mountains  covered  with  snow,  hot 
springs,  volcanos,  &c. ;  such  animals  as  the  lion, 
ostrich,  elephant,  reindeer,  camel,  whale,  £c. ;  such 
vegetable  productions  as  the  coffee-plant,  the  tea- 
plant,  rice,  bread-fruit,  cotton-plant,  banian-tree, 
palm,  &c. ;  such  people  as  the  Esquimaux  with  their 
dogs  and  their  houses  of  snow ;  the  Chinese  with 
their  strange  peculiarities  of  food,  dress,  and  mode 
of  life ;  the  Arabs  with  their  tents  and  horses ;  the 
Turks  with  their  long  beards  and  their  clumsy 
clothing;  the  Hottentot  in  his  hut,  the  Indian  in 
his  wigwam,  the  European  lord  in  his  stately  castle. 
If  given  in  simple  language  children  will  eagerly 
read  accounts  of  travels  and  voyages,  descriptions 


GEOGRAPHY.  373 

of  countries  and  their  inhabitants,  and  biographical 
sketches  of  distinguished  men.  Let  a  teacher  tell 
his  pupils  of  the  Israelites  crossing  the  Red  Sea, 
Columbus  on  his  way  to  America,  Bonaparte  at  St. 
Helena ;  and  if  he  does  not  interest  them  he  will 
accomplish  less  than  others  have  done. 

Admit  that  in  all  these  lessons  much  of  the  know 
ledge  imparted  cannot  assume  a  definite  shape  in 
the  mind  of  the  child,  admit  that  some  of  his  im 
pressions  will  be  erroneous,  and  it  is  no  valid  objec 
tion  against  this  mode  of  teaching;  because  children 
learn  nothing  in  any  other  way.  On  the  contrary, 
such  teaching  will  impart  many  valuable  ideas  to 
children  which  they  could  obtain  in  no  other  manner 
BO  agreeable  to  them,  and,  what  is  of  more  conse 
quence,  it  awakens  a  desire  for  knowledge  and  a 
taste  for  study  which  will  render  comparatively  easy 
the  task  of  learning  formal  Geography. 

Pictures  of  the  objects  upon  wrhich  the  lessons 
are  given  are  a  valuable  aid  ;  and  a  Magic  Lantern 
or  a  Stereoscope  could  be  used  to  great  advantage. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  LESSONS. — On  the  Topography  of 
the  neighborhood  about  the  School. — The  two  preceding 
classes  of  lessons,  while  they  are  intended  to  relate 
to  Geographical  subjects,  are  introductory  in  their 
character.  It  is  proposed  now  to  place  the  objects 
more  definitely  before  the  mind  of  the  pupil  by 
localizing  the  most  important  Geographical  facts 
and  introducing  more  system  into  the  study  of 
them.  For  this  purpose  the  pupil  must  have  com 
municated  to  him  correct  ideas  of  a  map,  and  this 
cannot  be  very  well  done  unless  he  is  acquainted 

32 


874.      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

witli  the  points  of  the  compass.  In  this  latitude, 
the  direction  of  the  sun  at  rising  and  setting  marks 
with  sufficient  accuracy  the  points  East  and  West; 
the  direction  of  the  sun  at  noon  and  of  the  north 
polar-star,  or  of  a  magnetic  needle,  indicates  correctly 
the  points  South  and  North.  A  teacher  can  readily 
draw  on  the  floor  with  a  piece  of  chalk  a  line  run 
ning  east  and  west;  another  crossing  it  at  right 
angles  will  run  north  and  south.  The  respective 
ends  of  these  lines  can  be  marked  with  the  letters 
E,  "W,  N,  S ;  and  pupils  will  soon  learn  to  name 
any  point  of  the  compass  thus  represented,  or  when 
drawn  upon  a  blackboard.  The  class  can  stand  up 
and  point  toward  where  the  sun  rises,  toward  where 
it  sets,  in  what  direction  the  sun  is  at  noon,  and  in 
what  direction  the  north  polar-star  is,  if  the  teacher 
has  previously  taken  the  trouble  to  show  them. 
Some  questions  should  then  be  asked  in  reference  to 
the  direction  from  the  school-house  of  certain  promi 
nent  objects  in  the  neighborhood.  This  done,  the 
design  and  construction  of  maps  must  be  explained. 
Maps  are  intended  to  represent  the  earth's  sur 
face;  but  the  various  means  made  use  of  for  this 
purpose,  require  considerable  power  of  imagination 
to  make  them  significant.  The  teacher  must  make 
his  pupils  realize  the  meaning  of  the  marks,  dots, 
and  lines  that  are  used  in  map-drawing.  To  begin, 
let  the  teacher  draw,  in  the  presence  of  his  class, 
upon  a  slate  or  a  blackboard  laid  horizontally,  a  plan 
of  the  school-house.  He  may  make  a  line  of  a  given 
length,  and  let  it  represent  one  end  of  the  school- 
House,  and  then  he  may  inquire  of  the  pupils  as  to 
the  length  and  direction  of  the  other  lines  and  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  375 

location  of  objects  in  the  room.  After  this,  the  slate 
or  blackboard  may  be  raised  to  a  perpendicular  posi 
tion,  and  the  pupils  required  to  imitate  the  plan 
drawn. 

This  lesson  may  be  succeeded  by  a  similar  one 
upon  the  school-grounds.  Different  scales  may  be 
adopted  in  representing  them,  in  order  to  guard 
pupils  against  the  error  sometimes  fallen  into  by 
them  of  supposing  that  the  size  of  a  map  must  be 
proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  portion  of  surface  it 
represents.  Questions  may  be  asked  in  reference  to 
boundaries,  and  the  relative  position  of  the  objects 
indicated  upon  the  map. 

Then  may  be  drawn  other  maps  representing  the 
neighboring  fields;  the  adjoining  wood;  the  roads  to 
the  mill,  store,  smith-shop,  factory ;  the  town  or  the 
village ;  brooks,  creeks,  ponds. 

Imaginary  school-grounds  may  be  drawn,  orna 
mented  with  walks,  shade  trees,  shrubbery,  and 
beds  of  flowers ;  imaginary  roads  crossed  by  streams 
of  water,  bordered  by  fields  and  woodlands,  and 
along  which  are  located  farm-houses,  shops,  stores, 
hotels,  school-houses,  and  churches ;  imaginary 
streams  spanned  by  bridges,  and  whereon  are  situ 
ated  saw-mills,  flouring-mills,  factories,  forges,  and 
towns ;  imaginary  farms  divided  into  fields  with 
wheat,  cotton,  corn,  potatoes,  &c.,  growing  in  them, 
with  streams  of  water  passing  through  them,  and 
cattle  grazing  on  the  hills  or  in  the  meadows ;  im 
aginary  plans  of  towns  and  cities  with  streets,  gar 
dens,  public  squares,  and  levees. 

Such  lessons  as  these,  if  accompanied  with  proper 
instruction,  will  prove  verv  r^nr^  more  useful  and 


876      INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

interesting  to  children  than  committing  to  memory 
the  little  rivers  of  Turkey  or  the  insignificant  towns 
of  Japan. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  LESSONS. — On  the  Explanation  of 
Common  Geographical  Terms. — The  preceding  classes 
of  lessons  will  prepare  learners  for  entering  upon 
the  more  formal  study  of  Geography.  But  as  clear 
ness  of  thought  very  much  depends  upon  clearness 
of  language,  some  more  definite  ideas  must  be  im 
parted  concerning  certain  Geographical  terms.  A 
few  examples  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  method  of 
doing  this. 

Let  the  term  be  River.  All  pupils  have  seen 
rivulets,  and  they  can  easily  understand  that  where 
severa1  rivulets  are  conjoined  a  larger  stream  of 
water  is  produced.  A  number  of  these  larger 
streams  meet  and  form  a  creek,  and  a  number  of 
creeks  joining  their  waters  make  a  river.  A  river 
is,  therefore,  "  a  large  stream  of  water."  The  repre 
sentation  of  a  river  writh  its  various  branches  can 
be  drawn  upon  blackboard  or  exhibited  upon  Charts. 

Let  the  term  be  Isthmus.  A  pupil  can  scarcely 
be  found  who  has  not  seen  at  least  a  small  piece 
of  ground  surrounded  by  water.  He  has  noticed 
this  in  a  creek,  a  mill-dam,  or,  if  no  where  else, 
in  a  pond  by  the  road-side.  Two  islands  may  be 
connected  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  and  this  is 
called  an  isthmus.  An  isthmus  can  be  represented 
as  in  the  case  of  a  river. 

In  like  manner,  passing  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  a  pond  can  be  expanded  into  a  lake ;  a 
hill  into  a  mountain ;  a  piece  of  low  land  filled  with 


GEOGRAPHY.  377 

water  from  a  creek  when  flooded,  into  a  gulf  or  bay; 
a  township  into  a  continent ;  a  village  into  a  city. 
Indeed,  all  that  pupils  really  learn  must  be  acquired 
in  this  way.  A  mere  abstract  definition  cannot 
possibly  be  of  any  benefit  to  them.  In  order  to 
ascertain  whether  pupils  have  formed  a  correct  idea 
of  such  objects,  they  may  be  required  to  point  out 
the  pictures  of  them  on  Charts,  and  to  draw  either 
real  or  imaginary  ones  on  the  blackboard.  Sets  of 
Geographical  models  designed  for  imitation,  and 
representing  rivers,  islands,  straits,  bays,  lakes, 
mountains,  &c.,  might  be  advantageously  used.  For 
this  purpose,  a  distinguished  English  Educator  re 
commends  an  article  of  apparatus  which  he  calls  a 
"Geographical  box."  It  is  made  of  wood,  carved 
to  represent  a  continent  with  its  seas,  bays,  islands, 
lakes,  &c.  Mountains,  table  lands,  banks  of  rivers, 
&c.,  are  made  with  putty,  and  the  whole  painted  in 
the  natural  colors  of  the  objects  represented.  This 
model  is  made  to  fit  in  a  box  somewhat  larger  in 
size,  and  which  when  used  is  partly  filled  with  water. 
Inside,  the  box  is  painted  a  bluish  green,  to  imitate 
the  color  of  the  sea.  The  model  must  be  so  adjusted 
In  weight  that  when  placed  in  the  water  contained 
in  the  box,  it  will  allow  the  water  to  pass  about  it 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  represent  peninsulas,  isth 
muses,  straits,  bays,  harbors,  rivers,  lakes,  &c. 

Pupils  may  be  told  that  the  earth  about  which 
they  are  going  to  study  is  round,  and  that  it  re 
volves  upon  its  axis  once  in  a  day  and  passes  around 
the  sun  once  in  a  year.  These  facts  must  be  illus- 
irated  by  means  of  a  globe  or  a  Tellurian,  may  be 
made  to  seem  probable  from  the  ready  explanation 
32* 


378        INSTRUCTION    IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

they  furnish  of  certain  phenomena  with  which  even 
children  are  acquainted ;  but  at  the  stage  of  pro- 
g'-ess  indicated  by  the  class  of  lessons  now  under 
going  discussion,  it  would  be  folly  to  attempt  to 
demonstrate  them.  Such  facts  may  be  received 
upon  testimony,  until  children  are  able  to  under 
stand  the  grounds  upon  which  they  are  based. 

It  might  be  proper  also  at  this  stage  of  their  pro 
gress  to  make  children  acquainted  with  the  various 
lines  which  are  employed  to  determine  the  relative 
positions  of  places  upon  the  earth's  surface.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  equator,  the  paral 
lels,  and  meridians.  Some  knowledge  of  the  tro 
pics,  the  polar  circles,  the  poles,  &c.,  may  be  im 
parted  at  the  same  time.  Such  instruction  can  be 
best  given  by  means  of  a  globe,  although  in  the 
absence  of  one,  some  round  object  or  the  blackboard 
can  be  substituted.  The  teacher  can  point  to  the 
line  which  is  drawn  around  the  globe,  show  that 
this  line  divides  it  into  two  parts,  and  give  these 
parts  their  proper  names — hemispheres.  Pupils  will 
readily  understand  that  it  is  easier  to  find  a  place 
in  one  of  the  hemispheres  than  it  is  to  find  one  upon 
the  whole  globe.  Other  lines  parallel  to  the  equator 
may  be  pointed  out  or  drawn,  their  names  stated, 
and  their  purpose  shown.  Meridians  can  be  exhi 
bited  and  their  use  explained  in  the  same  way. 
Pupils  should  then  draw  maps  of  the  hemispheres 
upon  the  blackboard  representing  the  parallels  and 
meridians,  and  numbering  them;  after  which  the 
teacher  may  engage  them  in  determining  the  lati 
tude  and  longitude  of  such  places  as  he  may  think 
it  proper  to  name.  This  done,  a  few  minutes  \v ill 


GEOGRAPHY.  379 

suffice  to  make  pupils  understand  what  is  meant  by 
tropics,  polar  circles,  and  poles.  "Whatever  con 
cerning  these  things  children  cannot  comprehend 
by  such  instruction  must  be  left  until  their  minds 
are  more  mature. 

FIFTH  CLASS  OF  LESSONS. — On  Detailed  Geography. 
— Having  been  instructed  in  the  lessons  previously 
described,  pupils  are  prepared  to  commence  the 
study  of  the  details  of  Geography.  For  this  pur 
pose  each  country  in  turn  must  be  brought  under 
consideration ;  and  the  best  order  to  be  followed  is 
to  consider  the  school-house  the  central  starting- 
point,  and  gradually  advance  further  and  further 
away  from  it,  until  the  whole  world  is  compre 
hended  in  the  survey. 

From  the  summit  of  a  hill  or  the  top  of  a  house, 
the  neighborhood  of  the  school  can  be  seen,  its 
aspects  and  objects  can  be  marked,  and  maps  of  it 
can  be  drawn.  Pupils  thus  introduced  to  the  sub 
ject  could  not  fail  to  notice  that  the  roads,  rivulets, 
and  hills  gradually  disappear  from  sight;  and  to 
realize  that  there  was  "more  beyond."  Then  the 
teacher  can  gratify  their  curiosity  by  presenting  be 
fore  them  a  map  of  the  town  or  township.  If  such 
a  map  cannot  be  purchased,  the  teacher  can  draw 
one  for  himself.  In  addition  to  the  most  important 
physical  features,  a  map  of  this  kind  ought  to  have 
represented  upon  it,  the  public  roads,  the  towns 
and  villages,  mills,  manufactories,  churches,  post- 
oriices,  school-houses,  and  even  some  of  the  farm 
houses.  Exercises  upon  maps  like  this  and  in  draw 
ing  similar  ones  can  scarcely  fail  to  interest  pupils. 


380        INSTRUCTION"   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

Next  to  the  Geography  of  the  town  or  township, 
the  Geography  of  the  county  or  district  in  which 
the  school  is  located  should  be  considered ;  then, 
that  of  the  state,  the  country,  and  in  succession  the 
other  countries  of  the  world.  Foreign  countries 
need  not  be  described  so  minutely  as  countries 
nearer  home,  nor  those  with  which  we  have  little 
intercourse  as  those  with  which  we  have  much. 
Great  teaching  skill  will  be  required  to  know  what 
to  include  in  these  lessons  and  what  to  omit.  In 
doing  it,  the  teacher  must  be  guided  by  the  circum 
stances  of  his  class,  and  no  theorizing  can  supply 
that  nice  sense  by  which  the  true  teacher  adapts  the 
mental  food  of  his  pupils  to  their  mental  appetites. 

In  leaving  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  where 
the  pupil  can  use  his  own  senses,  reliance  for  com 
municating  Geographical  knowledge  must  be  had 
upon  maps  and  descriptions.  The  inquiry  is  im 
portant  as  to  the  form  in  which  these  are  most 
effective. 

"With  all  the  art  of  the  most  skilful  Engraving, 
to  crowd  upon  a  flat  surface  of  a  few  inches 
square,  anything  that  will  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  objects  which  are  spread  out  upon  a  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface  hundreds  or  thousands  of 
miles  in  extent  is  impossible.  Maps  with  parts  of 
their  surfaces  raised  to  represent  the  elevations  of 
land,  and  profile  maps  may  be  better  calculated  to 
make  correct  impressions  upon  a  learner's  mind; 
but  after  all  much  must  be  left  to  the  imagination 
to  supply,  and  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  have  hia 
pupils  frequently  compare  what  they  have  not  seen 
with  what  they  have  seen.  Maps,  however,  roust 


GEOGEAPHY.  381 

be  carefully  studied.  Outline  maps  are  very  useful 
in  teaching  Geography.  They  train  the  papil  to 
remember  by  location  and  form.  Having  prepared 
lessons  by  means  of  common  Atlases,  pupils  can 
have  their  knowledge  tested  upon  Outline  maps. 
The  teacher  can  point  out  localities  and  the  pupils 
name  them,  the  teacher  can  name  them  and  the 
pupils  point  them  out,  or  some  pupils  can  name 
them  while  others  point  them  out.  In  reciting 
with  Outline  maps,  chants  are  sometimes  used;  but 
while  many  names  of  towns,  rivers,  mountains,  &c., 
can  be  quickly  and  pleasantly  communicated  in 
that  manner,  they  are  apt  to  be  soon  forgotten 
unless  fixed  in  the  mind  by  some  interesting  asso 
ciation. 

Map-drawing  may  immediately  follow  the  lessons 
on  the  maps,  and  it  will  be  a  test  by  which  the 
teacher  can  always  know  how  faithfully  the  work 
of  preparation  has  been  performed.  Pupils  will  look 
much  more  closely  at  their  Atlases,  and  perform  with 
much  more  care  their  exercises  upon  the  Outline 
maps,  if  they  know  that  they  will  be  immediately 
called  upon  to  reproduce  in  the  form  of  a  map,  what 
they  have  learned.  The  teacher  should  require  his 
pupils  to  drawmaps  of  every  country  the  Geography 
of  which  they  study.  Beginners  may  copy  their 
maps,  but  more  advanced  pupils  should  always  draw 
from  memory ;  or  classes  may  be  allowed  to  copy 
out  of  class,  and  be  required  to  draw  from  memory 
in  class.  Maps  thus  drawn  may  present  merely  the 
outlines  of  countries,  the  outlines  with  a  few  of  the 
principal  localities,  or  they  may  give  the  full  details 
that  the  best  engraved  maps  contain.  They  may 


382        INSTRUCTION  IN  EMPIRICAL  SCIENCES. 

be  rough,  extemporized  sketches  on  the  blackboard, 
or  they  may  be  carefully  prepared,  and  finely  finished 
specimens  of  map-drawing.  A  teacher  who  gives 
instruction  in  map-drawing  ought  to  be  able  to  show 
how  coasts,  rivers,  mountains,  &c.,  should  be  drawn, 
and  also  to  present  rules  for  marking  parallels, 
meridians,  &c.  Such  instruction  may  be  facilitated 
by  the  use  of  map-drawing  cards,  or  blank,  black 
globes  suitable  for  drawing  upon. 

But  all  this  map-drawing  and  this  study  of  Atlases, 
and  Outline  maps,  and  globes,  will  be  comparatively 
dull  and  profitless  unless  the  teacher  know  how  to 
enliven  the  lessons  with  interesting  descriptions, 
narratives,  incidents,  and  stories.  Pleasant  associa 
tions  must  be  made  to  cluster  about  all  the  dry 
details  of  Geography.  The  earth  must  not  be  con- 
eidered  merely  as  a  skeleton.  It  must  be  vivified 
with  life.  Its  plants  and  animals  must  make  revela 
tions,  and  voices  must  come  forth  from  mountains 
and  valleys,  from  oceans  and  seas,  from  lakes  and 
rivers,  from  great  caves  and  mighty  cataracts,  mak 
ing  known  their  uses  and  revealing  their  beauty.  It 
must  be  considered  as  the  theatre  upon  whose  stage 
the  great  drama  of  human  life  is  being  played.  Scene 
has  followed  Scene  for  the  past  six  thousand  years, 
now  a  Tragedy,  and  now  a  Comedy,  and  still  the  play 
goes  on.  Mark  yon  uprolled  curtain,  teacher,  and 
let  your  eager  children  view  the  wondrous  spectacle. 
When  thus  taught,  Geography  is  a  very  attractive 
study  for  the  young.  Here  the  teacher  can  pour 
out  in  rich  profusion  the  stores  of  his  knowledge 
gleaned  from  History,  Biography,  Voyages  and 
Travels,  and  the  explorations  of  scientific  men,  and 


GEOGRAPHY.  885 

be  will  be  listened  to  with  intense  interest.  Start 
ing  with  the  pupil's  own  village  or  township,  the 
teacher  can  find  an  old  church,  a  mound,  a  battle 
field,  the  birth-place  of  some  noted  individual,  a 
romantic  pile  of  rocks,  a  beautiful  glen,  a  bed  of 
strange  fossils,  some  mysterious  legend,  remarkable 
event,  or  curious  incident,  that  will  throw  a  charm 
about  the  formal  dottings  and  tracings  of  the  Atlas 
and  the  cold  statistics  of  the  text-book,  that  wins 
them  a  place  in  the  pupil's  mind  and  heart  forever. 
The  teacher  of  Geography  has  a  wide  field  from 
which  to  gather  his  materials.  He  is  at  liberty  to 
cull  the  choicest  facts,  the  noblest  truths,  the  richest 
beauties  from  all  arts  and  all  sciences,  to  furnish  the 
intellectual  banquets  he  provides  for  his  pupils. 
ISTo  country  is  so  poor  that  it  cannot  present  some 
thing  worthy  of  interest.  Every  state  in  this  Union 
has  much  that  if  skilfully  woven  into  the  recitation 
would  make  its  Geography  one  of  the  most  attrac 
tive  of  studies.  We  have  our  Natural  Bridges,  our 
Mammoth  Caves,  our  Niagara  Cataracts ;  our  noble 
rivers,  our  beautiful  lakes,  our  picturesque  moun 
tains,  our  broad  flower-decked  prairies ;  we  have 
Jamestown's  ruins,  Plymouth  Rock,  Independence 
Hall,  Bunker  Hill,  Stony  Point,  Brandy  wine,  Mount 
Vernon,  Ashland,  Marshfield,  Shiloh,  Gettysburg, 
and  Missionary  Ridge,  and  these,  and  such  as  these, 
have  about  them  clustering  rich  beauties  or  hallowed 
memories.  The  teacher  travels  with  his  pupils  in 
imagination.  He  should  make  their  travelling  seem 
real  to  them,  by  forming  skilful  combinations  of  the 
physical  and  political  characteristics  of  countries 
and  painting  them  in  words  or  exhibiting  them  in 


384       INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

pictures.  Let  a  teacher  take  his  class  across  the 
ocean,  describing  ocean  life  hy  the  way ;  let  him 
visit  with  them,  Scotland,  England,  France,  Switzer 
land,  Germany,  Italy,  Greece,  Egypt,  Turkey,  Pales 
tine,  India,  China,  and  other  countries  of  the  East; 
and  he  will  find  that  every  step  of  the  journey  may 
be  made  full  of  the  most  absorbing  interest.  If  the 
teacher  speak  only  of  those  things  which  would 
attract  the  attention  of  the  class  if  actually  travel 
ling,  and  others  necessary  to  make  them  understood, 
he  will  have  a  delightful  journey,  and  his  pupils  will 
return  from  it  wiser  and  better.  The  teacher  might 
be  aided  in  this  work  by  the  use  of  a  Stereoscope,  a 
Magic  Lantern,  or  a  series  of  pictures  which  would 
exemplify  the  Geography  of  distant  countries.  With 
such  aids  the  teacher  might  almost  make  his  pupils 
think  they  wrere  gazing  upon  the  beautiful  scenery, 
the  rich  cities,  the  gorgeous  palaces,  the  ruined 
castles,  the  ivy-covered  abbeys  of  the  old  world;  or 
standing  upon  spots  associated  with  the  names  of 
great  men  or  noble  deeds.  lie  might  almost  make 
them  conceive  themselves  as  travelling  in  the  snows 
of  Lapland,  riding  in  the  gondolas  at  Venice,  or 
marching  upon  the  back  of  a  rough  camel  across  the 
desert  with  the  slow-moving  caravan  —  as  rambling 
among  the  ruins  of  Rome,  rebuilding  in  imagination 
from  scattered  fragments,  great  temples  in  Athens, 
climbing  the  Pyramids,  or  tracing  the  footsteps  of  the 
Man  of  Sorrows  about  the  Holy  City — as  introduced 
among  the  wild  Arabs  in  their  tents,  the  grave 
Turks  on  their  cushions  or  at  their  mosques,  the 
superstitious  Hindoos  when  performing  their  feats 
of  jugglery,  undergoing  their  penances,  or  carrying 


GEOGKAPHY.  885 

cn  their  learned  disputations,  the  self-conceited 
Chinese  where  they  traffic  in  their  shops  or  on  their 
boats,  where  they  dress  their  gardens  or  cultivate 
their  tea,  or  where  they  crowd  their  temples  or 
meditate  in  their  schools  of  philosophy. 

The  design  of  all  this  is  to  exhibit  the  spirit  with 
which  Geography  should  be  taught.  The  teacher 
must  of  course  adapt  his  instruction  to  the  age  of 
the  pupils  and  the  circumstances  of  the  class. 

SIXTH  CLASS  or  LESSONS. — On  the  Classification  of 
Geographical  Facts.  —  To  primary  classes  learning 
Geography  there  can  only  be  imparted  with  much 
hope  of  success  a  knowledge  of  individual  facts. 
Such  facts  must  be  chosen  as  will  interest  them,  and 
their  tenacious  memories  will  not  suffer  them  to  be 
forgotten.  As  soon,  however,  as  pupils  enter  upon 
the  study  of  the  minuter  details  of  Geography,  the 
teacher  must  aid  their  powers  of  recollection  by  a 
carefully  arranged  outline  of  classification.  In  the 
study  of  the  detailed  Geography  of  a  particular 
country,  it  is  not  best  to  consider  the  facts  to  be 
learned  in  any  order  in  which  they  may  chance  to 
present  themselves,  but  they  should  be  grouped 
together  in  classes.  With  such  an  outline  of  classi 
fication  before  him,  the  pupil  could  collect  his 
matter  and  recite  it,  much  more  perfectly  than  it 
would  be  possible  for  him  to  do  otherwise.  He 
would  also  be  likely  to  retain  it  longer  in  his 
memory.  Many  of  our  Geographical  text-books  are 
defective  in  their  classifications.  The  following  dis 
tribution  of  the  object-matter  of  Geography  will  be 
found  to  answer  the  end  now  contemplated: 

33 


386       INSTRUCTION    IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

1.  Boundaries. 

2.  Extent  and  divisions. 

3.  General  character  of  the  surface. 

4.  Internal  waters. 

5.  Nature  of  the  soil  and  climate. 

6.  Productions. 

7.  Cities  and  towns. 

8.  Facilities  for  internal  communication. 

9.  The  inhabitants. 

10.  Government,  religion,  science   and  art,   edu« 
cation. 

11.  Miscellaneous  facts. 

At  recitation,  each  pupil  should  be  expected  tc» 
reproduce  the  information  he  has  collected  respect 
ing  a  particular  country,  and  arranged  under  these 
respective  classes.  He  need  not  be  confined  to  the 
text-book  in  making  preparation. 

But  the  preceding  classification  is  not  broad 
enough  to  satisfy  a  teacher  in  the  higher  depart 
ments  of  Geography.  The  same  principle  should 
be  so  extended  as  to  embrace  the  various  Geographi 
cal  facts  relating  to  all  countries.  Mountains,  rivers, 
islands,  lakes,  rocks,  soils,  climates,  currents,  winds, 
animals,  plants,  and  men  admit  of  classification. 
Indeed,  it  is  impossible  to  study  them  thoroughly 
without  it.  If  studied  only  as  they  appear  in  par 
ticular  countries,  the  information  gained  will  be 
comparatively  of  little  value.  Besides,  the  best 
way  for  advanced  pupils  to  study  the  extent  of  coun 
tries,  the  population  of  cities,  the  length  of  rivers, 
kinds  of  religion,  stages  of  civilization,  and  forms 
of  government,  is  by  comparison  and  classification. 


GEOGKAPHY.  387 

For  beginners  in  Geography,  the  particular  should 
always  precede  the  general ;  but  for  advanced  pupils 
the  general  may  precede  the  particular,  for  they  will 
possess  sufficient  knowledge  to  appreciate  principles, 
and  principles  will  guide  them  in  further  study. 

It  will  be  understood  from  what  has  been  said 
that  teachers  of  Geography  ought  not  to  be  satisfied 
with  a  mere  accumulation  of  disconnected  facts,  but 
they  should  lead  their  pupils  to  combine  them  into 
well-arranged  classes  and  systems. 

SEVENTH  CLASS  OF  LESSONS. — On  the  General  Laws 
which  govern  Geographical  Facts. — Having  found  the 
facts  of  Geography  and  classed  them,  learners  must 
be  set  upon  the  search  for  their  causes.  The  form 
of  the  earth  must  be  demonstrated,  and  its  motions 
must  be  explained.  The  causes  must  be  investigated 
that  have  tended  to  shape  the  continental  masses, 
heaved  up  mountains,  formed  islands,  scooped  out 
valleys,  graded  plains,  covered  deserts  with  sand, 
and  varied  the  nature  of  soils;  that  drive  forward 
the  ocean  currents,  swell  the  tides,  determine  the 
courses  and  cut  out  the  beds  of  rivers,  fill  the  lakes 
with  water  and  keep  them  fresh  or  make  them  salt; 
that  temper  the  weather,  move  the  winds,  distribute 
the  rain,  bring  hail,  snow,  and  dew,  and  build  up 
and  float  away  great  bergs  of  ice ;  that  adapt  plants 
and  animals  to  the  countries  in  which  they  are 
found,  and  even  modify  the  races  of  men  ;  that  con 
trol  the  employments  of  the  people,  inducing  those 
of  some  nations  to  engage  in  manufacturing,  some 
in  farming,  some  in  mining,  and  others  in  com- 
oierce,  fix  the  boundaries  of  states,  foment  war* 


388       INSTRUCTION   IN   EMPIRICAL    SCIENCES. 

and  keep  peace,  point  out  the  locations  for  the 
founding  of  cities,  the  building  of  railroads,  and 
the  construction  of  bridges,  and  exert  an  influence 
upon  government,  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
people,  science,  art,  education,  and  religion.  This 
is  a  most  inviting  field  ;  and  the  thoughtful  teacher 
may  find  in  it  reasons  so  simple  that  a  child  may 
understand  them,  and  principles  so  complicated 
that  none  but  a  mind  like  that  of  Humboldt  could 
evolve  them. 

In  teaching  pupils  to  make  inductions,  they  must 
be  brought  to  compare  the  known  with  the  unknown, 
by  means  of  explanations,  illustrations,  and  experi 
ments.  Finding  out  the  reasons  of  things  generally 
furnishes  so  much  pleasure  to  learners,  that  the 
most  the  teacher  will  have  to  do  is  to  provide  a 
fit  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  their  reasoning 
powers,  and  they  w;ll  gladly  use  them — and  use 
them  to  some  purpose.  A  text-book  may  state 
general  principles  and  present  a  sufficient  number 
of  facts  to  prove  them ;  but  the  pupil  should  be 
required  to  make  an  application  of  these  prin<  »plea 
in  explaining  new  phenomena  and  solving  new 
probl  ems. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

THOSE  who  understand  the  sciences  of  which  we 
have  thus  far  treated  can  scarcely  have  failed  to 
observe  that  they  start  out  hy  taking  something  for 
granted,  that  they  make  no  attempt  to  account  for 
the  ultimate  premises  upon  which  they  base  their 
conclusions. 

The  sciences  relating  to  Language  treat  of  the 
elements  of  speech  and  their  relations  ;  but  every 
principle  of  these  sciences  may  be  traced  back  to 
laws  of  thought,  and  these  again  rest  upon  certain 
intuitions  of  the  Reason. 

The  Formal  Sciences  confessedly  erect  their 
superstructure  upon  a  foundation  of  definitions  and 
axioms,  the  nature  of  which  they  do  not  pretend  to 
investigate.  Mathematicians  merely  state  the  defi 
nitions  and  axioms  which  relate  to  Mathematics: 
Logicians  often  enlarge  somewhat  upon  those  which 
relate  to  Logic,  but  merely  as  an  introduction  to 
the  subject  proper.  Logic  treats  of  the  laws  of 
thought,  the  treatment  of  the  elements  of  thought 
belongs  elsewhere. 

The  Empirical  Sciences  rest  also  upon  a  basis  of 
definitions  and  axioms.  Not  a  single  observation 
can  be  made,  class  formed,  or  inference  drawn  with 
out  the  aid  of  principles  which  no  Inductive  Ph'ilo- 

83*  (S89) 


390       INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

eophy  can  account  for.  By  themselves  they  begin 
in  assumption  and  end  in  assumption. 

By  means  of  the  Understanding  we  can  correct 
concepts,  compare  facts,  form  syllogisms,  and  apply 
ascertained  principles,  and  this  constitutes,  apart 
from  the  collection  of  materials,  the  whole  work  the 
mind  has  to  do  in  acquainting  itself  with  a  Language, 
a  Formal  or  an  Empirical  Science.  The  products 
of  the  Reason  are,  of  course,  used,  but  they  are 
assumed. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  back  of  all  the  sci 
ences  referred  to,  there  must  be  another  class  of 
sciences,  whose  province  it  is  to  treat  of  what  is 
elsewhere  taken  for  granted.  We  have  ideas  of 
space,  time,  cause,  truth,  beauty,  right,  &c. ;  but 
what  is  the  nature  of  these  ideas  ?  and  whence  do 
they  come  ?  We  deal  with  axioms ;  but  what  is  an 
axiom  ?  By  what  tests  can  axioms  be  distinguished  ? 
Upon  what  rests  their  claim  to  universal  acceptance 
as  truth?  The  sciences  that  embrace  this  object- 
matter  must  interpenetrate  with  their  ideas  and 
regulate  with  their  forms  all  other  sciences,  must 
be  the  germs  out  of  which  they  grow,  the  roots  by 
which  they  are  supported  and  nourished,  the  light 
in  which  they  can  be  understood.  The  sciences 
whose  object-matter  may  be  thus  characterized,  have 
been  called  the  Metaphysical  Sciences,  and,  pro 
perly,  since  they  are  over  or  above  Physics;  but  a 
better  name,  perhaps,  is  the  Rational  Sciences,  since 
they  are  evolved  directly  from  the  Reason. 

The  Reason  is  that  faculty  of  the  mind  which  is, 
and  by  which  it  knows  itself  to  be  the  source  of 
necessary  and  universal  principles.  Out  of  such 


INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL   SCIENCES.  391 

princ  pies  all  the  sciences  grow,  and  by  them  life 
should  be  guided.  By  means  of  the  Reason  we 
rise  above  a  servile  independence  upon  material 
things,  and,  believing,  lay  hold  on  things  unseen. 

In  searching  the  whole  field  open  to  his  investiga- 
ion,  the  most  diligent  student  can  predicate  nothing 
in  respect  to  what  he  finds  that  may  not  be  arranged 
in  one  of  the  three  following  classes:  TRUTH, 
BEAUTY,  and  GOODNESS. 

The  human  mind  has  three  great  classes  of 
Powers,  viz. :  the  Intellect,  the  Feelings,  and  the 
Will.  The  activities  of  each  class  in  their  objective 
relations  are  subject  to  a  distinct  body  of  laws. 
The  products  of  the  right  operation  of  the  Intellect 
may  be  called  Truth,  the  products  of  the  right  ope 
ration  of  the  Feelings  may  be  called  Beauty,  and 
the  products  of  the  right  operation  of  the  Will  may 
be  called  G-oodness. 

The  Eeason  reigns  over  the  mind.  All  the 
mental  powers  operate  subject  to  its  control.  Each 
looks  to  the  Reason  for  an  end  to  aim  at,  and  a  light 
to  guide  its  effort.  The  Intellect  knows  nothing  of 
truth ;  the  Feelings  of  Beauty ;  the  Will  of  good 
ness,  unless  the  Reason  furnishes  criteria  by  which 
to  judge  them.  These  criteria  are  evolved  from  the 
Primitive  Ideas  of  the  TRUE,  the  BEAUTIFUL,  and 
the  GOOD;  and  based  upon  these  ideas  and  out 
working  from  them,  we  have  the  Rational  Sciences, 
called  respectively  PHILOSOPHY,  ^ESTHETICS,  and 
ETHICS.  The  idea  of  God  —  an  idea  which  unites 
all  perfection  in  one  Being,  gives  us  THEOLOGY,  but 
no  discussion  of  this  science  will  be  indulged  in 
here.  Leibnitz,  followed  by  others,  has  arranged 


392        INSTRUCTION    IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

the  Rational  Sciences  into  three  classes,  viz. ;  Ra 
tional  Physics,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
World ;  Rational  Psychology,  or  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  Soul ;  and  Rational  Theology,  or  the 
science  which  treats  of  God.  This  classification  ia 
exhaustive,  but  not  so  well  suited  to  the  present 
purpose  as  that  above  named. 

Among  the  ideas  relating  to  the  True  are  those 
of  space,  time,  substance,  cause,  infinity,  &c. ;  among 
those  relating  to  the  Beautiful  are  order,  proportion, 
harmony,  grace,  perfection,  &c. ;  and  among  those 
relating  to  the  Good  are  right,  duty,  liberty,  virtue, 
holiness,  &c. 

A  few  remarks  are  in  place  here  as  to  the  ori 
gin  and  nature  of  these  ideas.  It  has  already  been 
shown  that  they  cannot  be  derived  from  experience, 
but  they  are  always  formed  upon  the  occasion  of  some 
experience.  We  notice  ^  something  that  is  true, 
beautiful,  or  good,  and  immediately  there  uprises 
in  the  mind  that  ideal  standard  by  which  all  that 
is  true,  beautiful,  and  good  may  be  measured.  Let 
experience  be  extended,  be  made  as  extensive  as 
possible,  still  the  ideal  will  outspan  it.  If  in  thought 
we  can  transcend  all  possible  experience,  can  we  in 
thought  know  the  Absolute  and  the  Infinite?  To 
me  it  seems  clear  that  our  knowledge  of  the  Abso 
lute  and  Infinite  must  be  confined  to  the  fact  that 
they  exist ;  but  of  this  fact  we  can  be  as  certain  as 
of  any  other.  We  cannot  resist  the  conviction  that 
there  is  nobler  truth,  richer  beauty,  greater  good 
than  any  we  can  possibly  conceive  of;  and  rising 
in  degrees  it  is  impossible  not  to  think  that  some 
where  there  must  be  the  absolutely  and  infinitely 


INSTRUCTION"   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES.       393 

Perfect.  Besides,  as  there  is  the  Relative  there  must 
be  the  Absolute;  as  there  is  the  Finite  there  must 
be  the  Infinite ;  as  earthly  truth,  beauty,  and  good 
ness  centre  in  the  human  Reason  —  in  man,  so  the 
True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good,  unconditioned 
in  their  perfection,  centre  in  the  Divine  Reason  — 
in  God.  The  right  conception  of  the  human  Reason 
leads  necessarily  to  a  conception  of  the  Divine  Rea 
son,  and  to  a  Divine  Personality  in  which  it  is 
enthroned. 

We  are  just  as  sure  of  the  existence  of  the  Infi 
nite  as  of  the  Finite ;  of  the  Absolute  as  of  the 
Relative  ;  of  the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good, 
as  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness ;  of  God  as  of 
man.  What  if  into  the  pure  regions  where  angels 
dwell  the  human  mind  is  only  permitted  to  look  — 
that  look  reveals  plainly  enough  the  thing  looked 
for,  is  a  firm  ground  of  faith,  and  furnishes  a  suffi 
cient  foretaste  of  the  ineffable  delight  with  which 
in  the  Better  Land  we  shall  behold  its  glories  face 
to  face. 

Some  great  thinkers  have  denied  that  the  human 
mind  can  attain  to  any  knowledge  of  the  Uncon 
ditioned,  but  at  the  same  time  have  admitted  that 
we  believe  in  the  existence  of  the  Absolute  and  the 
Infinite,  or  of  a  Being  absolute  and  infinite.  That 
we  may  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  thing  of  which 
we  have  no  adequate  conception  is  clear  for  we  do 
it  constantly ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  we  never 
believe  a  thing  without  having  some  ground  for  the 
belief — an  idea  out  of  which  it  springs.  With  Dr. 
McCosh  I  hold  "  That  when  there  is  no  positive 
conception,  then  faith  ought  to  cease,  and 


894       INSTRUCTION    IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

cease."  But  God  has  not  left  mankind  without  a 
witness  of  Himself,  without  a  light  to  guide  those 
who  will  heed  it,  to  Heaven.  Through  the  spiritual 
eye,  the  Reason  sanctified,  the  heart  made  pure, 
man  can  see  enough  of  Heavenly  things  to  make 
positive  the  evidence  upon  which  he  rests  his  faith 
in  God  and  immortality. 

Since  the  Rational  Sciences  are  so  far  removed 
from  what  business  men  call  practical,  and  since  in 
this  country  there  is  so  much  prejudice  against 
Metaphysical  studies,  it  seems  necessary  to  set  forth 
the  value  which  may  be  derived  from  the  pursuit 
of  such  studies. 

1.  The  Valueof  the  Rational  Sciences  in  Themselves.-^- 
To  the  unthinking,  the  value  of  the  Rational  sciences- 
in  themselves  does  not  seem  great.  They  can  easily 
understand  that  Grammar  is  useful  as  it  aids  in 
speaking  and  writing,  that  Mathematics  is  useful 
in  keeping  accounts,  that  Chemistry  may  be  useful 
in  analyzing  soils  and  selecting  good  fertilizers  to 
enrich  them  ;  but  the  utility  of  truth  so  abstract 
as  that  of  the  Rational  Sciences  is  not  likely  to  be 
appreciated  by  those  whose  blind  judgment  esti 
mates  the  worth  of  knowledge  by  the  amount  of 
money  it  will  make.  The  age  is  intensely  practical. 
Men  are  measured  by  the  amount  of  work  they 
can  do.  He  who  makes  a  great  speech,  wins  a 
great  battle,  or  heads  a  successful  expedition  ieceives 
the  honors  which  he  merits  ;  but  he  who  nobly 
devotes  himself  to  the  study  of  truth  for  its  own 
eake  is  called  a  dreamer,  a  theorist,  a  transcendeu- 


INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL   SCIENCES,       395 

talist,  and  is  rather  pitied  than  applauded.  This 
condition  of  things  may  be  excused  on  the  ground 
that  our  country  is  new,  and  that  in  cqnsequence 
great  activity  is  manifested  in  all  that  relates  to  the 
external  life ;  hut  the  application  of  a  test  that 
would  determine  the  true  worth  of  knowledge 
might  decide  in  opposition  to  the  popular  verdict. 
"With  a  broader  view  even  of  the  interests  of  our 
earthly  life,  it  might  appear  that  the  most  potent 
influence  among  men  is  exerted  by  the  thinker  — 
the  thinker  who  studies  at  the  root  of  things,  and 
ever  and  anon  announces  principles  that  control 
church  and  state,  and  guide  the  affairs  of  men. 

The  value  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Rational  Sciences 
appears  in  the  nature  of  their  object-matter.  These 
sciences  contain  all  that  body  of  truth  which  is  ne 
cessary,  fixed,  and  fundamental  —  all  else  is  contin 
gent,  fleeting,  and  dependent;  and  surely  it  is  as 
important  to  understand  the  thought  that  furnishes 
the  foundation  and  conditions  the  superstructure  of 
knowledge  as  it  is  the  work  done  by  the  laborers 
who  simply  adjust  the  materials.  Besides,  the 
Rational  Sciences  are  the  products  of  the  Reason  — 
the  noblest  of  our  mental  faculties  and  the  only  one 
that  distinguishes  man  as  a  being  differing  in  kind 
from  the  lower  animals. 

The  value  of  a  knowledge  of  the  Rational  Sciences 
appears  further  in  the  fact  that  herein  are  found 
properly  discriminated  and  expressed,  all  our  Pri 
mary  ideas  without  which  all  truth  would  be  con 
tingent,  all  beauty  passing,  all  goodness  relative — 
without  which  there  would  be  no  ground  for  a 
belief  in  a  future  life  or  in  the  existence  of  God. 


396       INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

It  might  be  added,  too,  that  their  value  appears  in 
their  relation  to  the  Fine  Arts.  The  Fine  Arts  are  the 
efforts  the  Reason  makes  to  realize  its  ideal  forms. 
They  impart  their  full  meaning  to  him  alone  who 
can  read  the  pure  sentiment  pictured  on  the  canvas, 
enshrined  in  the  marble,  or  uttered  forth  in  poetry 
and  music. 

2 .  The  Va lue  of  t  lie  Rationa I  Scien  ces  in  their  Relations 
to  other  Sciences. — The  study  of  the  Empirical  Sciences 
exclusively  is  apt  to  exert  an  evil  influence  upon  the 
mind.  Accustomed  to  seek  a  cause  for  every  effect, 
the  otudent  of  these  sciences  is  easily  led  to  doubt 
the  freedom  of  the  will  or  the  existence  of  a  great 
First  Cause.  He  cannot  be  made  to  understand 
how  there  can  be  an  Unconditioned  Being;  and  if 
he  adopt  any  views  at  all  concerning  religion  it  will 
most  likely  be  those  of  the  Pantheist  or  the  Fat^ist. 

No  one  by  walking  in  the  treadmill  of  the  Formal 
Sciences  can  ever  do  more  than  demonstrate  the 
particular  truths  that  lie  embodied  in  the  general 
truths  which  he  accepts  without  inquiry  as  to  their 
source  or  nature.  The  stream  of  demonstration  can 
never  rise  higher  than  its  fountain. 

The  Rational  Sciences  constitute  the  bases  of  all 
other  sciences.  Unless  grounded  upon  such  bases, 
these  sciences  would  be  like  floating  vessels  with  no 
anchors.  Unsubstantial  as  they  may  seem  to  the 
unthinking,  all  our  knowledge  rests  upon  the 
intuitions  of  the  Reason.  Take  these  from  under 
the  Empirical  or  Formal  Sciences  and  beautiful 
parts  might  still  remain,  but  there  could  be  no 
scientific  systems.  Like  the  crumbling  ruins  of  an 


INSTKUCTION    IN   EATIONAL    SCIENCES.       39? 

ancient  temple,  they  would  lie  scattered  in  dispro- 
portioned  and  disordered  fragments.  There  must 
be  conditioning  principles  for  all  perceptions,  for 
ail  judgments,  for  all  reasonings  ;  and  of  such  is  the 
object-matter  of  the  Rational  Sciences  composed. 
The  intuitions  of  the  Reason  must  work  down  to 
meet  the  intuitions  of  the  Senses  working  up.  Take 
away  the  Rational  Sciences  and  you  take  away  the 
heart  of  the  other  sciences  —  take  away  that  which 
makes  them  sciences,  that  by  which  alone  their  facts 
and  reasonings  can  receive  an  intelligent  interpre 
tation. 

3.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  as  Means  of 
Discipline. — An  end  of  study  is  discipline,  what  is 
the  disciplinary  value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  ? 

These  sciences  concern  the  highest  form  of  truth. 
They  require  the  deepest  insight,  the  clearest  per 
ception,  the  most  exact  definition,  and  the  most 
careful  reasoning  of  which  the  human  mind  is 
capable.  They  alone  have  furnished  the  great 
problems  the  solution  of  which  has  called  out  the 
full  mental  strength  of  such  Philosophers  as  Plato, 
Kant,  Cousin,  and  Hamilton. 

These  sciences  employ  all  the  powers  of  the  mind. 
In  its  pure  form,  truth  is  apprehended  only  by  the 
Reason,  but  in  its  applied  form  all  the  mental  facul 
ties  may  be  engaged  in  dealing  with  it.  But  if  the 
discipline  to  be  derived  from  the  study  of  the  Ra 
tional  Sciences,  appertains  to  the  Reason  alone,  no 
object  in  education  can  be  higher  than  the  develop 
ment  of  that  faculty.  By  it  there  is  revealed  to  man 
a  world  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness ;  by  it  he  ia 

34 


898        INSTRUCTION"    IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

distinguished  from  the  brutes  that  perish,  by  it  Lo 
reigns  sovereign  of  this  world,  and  by  it  he  claims 
heirship  to  a  higher  one 

The  mental  discipline  resulting  from  the  study  of 
Language  comes  in  good  part  from  the  relations  of 
Language  to  the  Rational  Sciences.  This  is  more 
emphatically  true  of  the  Formal  Sciences ;  and  the 
hardest  questions  that  may  be  asked  in  connection 
with  the  Empirical  Sciences  relate  to  ideas  and  not 
to  facts. 

4.  The  Value  of  the  Rational  Sciences  in  preparing 
the  Mind  to  accept  Eevealtd  Truth. — Empirical  Science 
finds  facts,  classifies  and  generalizes  them,  but  here 
its  work  ends,  as  it  can  neither  account  for  its  facts 
nor  make  its  generalizations  universal.  To  it  nature 
is  but  an  endless  chain  of  links.  It  can  find  neither 
a  beginning  nor  an  end.  In  the  view  of  the  Induc 
tive  Philosophy,  if  the  human  mind  is  anything 
different  from  matter,  all  its  energizing  is  still  sub 
ject  to  the  inexorable  law  of  cause  and  effect. 
According  to  it,  there  can  be  no  free  will,  and,  of 
course  no  right  and  wrong, — no  God,  and,  of  course, 
no  inspiration,  no  revealed  truth,  no  prophecy,  no 
miracles.  Empirical  Science  is  well  worthy  of  study 
in  its  own  sphere,  but  it  is  incomplete  by  itself  and 
needs  Rational  Science  as  a  complement. 

The  Formal  Sciences  accept  necessary  and  uni 
versal  truths  as  facts,  but  make  no  inquiry  as  to 
what  they  are  or  whence  they  come.  They  carefully 
evolve  from  them  particular  principles  relating  to 
space,  and  time,  and  the  laws  of  thought,  but  neither 
Mathematics  nor  Logic  can  solve  the  highest  prob- 


INSTRUCTION    IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES.        399 

Jems  of  life.  They  are  means,  not  ends.  They 
reveal  truths,  not  truth.  They  treat  of  the  Formal 
above  nature  but  the  soul  asks  for  the  Real  above 
nature. 

On  the  contrary,  if  we  find  a  ground  in  the  Reason 
for  faith  in  the  doctrines  of  human  responsibility, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  existence  of  God, 
the  way  is  open  for  an  intelligent  acknowledgment 
of  the  Bible  as  the  inspired  Word  of  God.  Truth 
does  come  into  the  mind  without  reasoning,  whence? 
May  not  God  inspire  it-?  Or,  may  He  not  so  sanc 
tify  the  Reason  that  He  can  use  it  to  utter  forth 
His  counsel  to  a  sinful  world  ?  May  not  prophets 
foretell  future  events,  since  from  a  certain  standpoint 
all  truths  are  universal  as  to  time  ?  And  does  not 
the  power  of  free  origination  render  miracles  not 
only  possible  but  necessary  ? 

A  God  in  nature  if  such  a  conception  can  be 
entertained,  may  be  governed  by  the  law^s  of  nature ; 
but  a  God  both  in  and  above  nature,  from  whom 
nature  came,  must  rule  and  regulate  His  works  and 
can  in  no  wise  be  subject  to  the  laws  that  govern 
them.  All  skepticism  has  its  root  in  an  erroneous 
or  incomplete  philosophy.  The  highest  office  of 
the  Reason  is  to  believe  without  reasoning — to  have 
faith  in  things  unseen — to  look  up  like  Stephen 
through  the  opening  Heavens  and  see  revealed  the 
mysteries  of  God. 

Before  we  can  treat  intelligently  of  methods  of 
teaching  the  Rational  Sciences,  we  must  characterize 
their  object-matter  more  definitely.  This  object- 
matter  consists,  first,  in  Primary  Ideas,  or  ideas  of 


4:00        INSTRUCTION    IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good ;  second,  in 
Criteria,  or  standards  by  which  may  be  determined 
what  is  true,  beautiful,  and  good ;  third,  in  Axiomatic 
Truths,  or  that  body  of  principles  from  which  deduc 
tions  and  demonstrations  are  made ;  fourth,  in  De 
ductions  and  Demonstrations,  or  the  processes  of 
evolving  less  general  principles  from  those  more 
general,  and  of  bringing  new  truths  under  principles 
already  established;  fifth,  in  Applications,  or  the 
adapting  of  abstract  principles  to  concrete  facts.  It 
is  not  pretended  that  the  matter  belonging  to  these 
several  classes  is  entirely  distinct,  but  the  classifica 
tion  will  be  found  convenient.  Strictly  considered, 
the  Rational  Sciences  embrace  only  the  matter  indi 
cated  by  the  first  three  classes. 

1.  PRIMARY  IDEAS. — I  do  not  think  therb  are  any 
principles  in  the  mind  that  are  strictly  innate.  There 
are  doubtless  innate  forces  and  laws  governing  these 
forces,  but  we  never  become  conscious  of  them  as 
principles  except  upon  the  occasion  of  some  experi 
ence.  An  idea  is  the  result  of  two  factors — a  sub 
ject  thinking  and  an  object  thought.  But  whilo 
this  is  true  as  to  the  origin  of  intuitive  principles, 
we  are  constantly  making  use  of  these  principles  in 
ways  which  show  that  they  necessarily  transcend  all 
possible  experience  and  therefore  cannot  be  derived 
from  experience.  As  soon  as  we  understand  what 
parallel  lines  are  we  know  that  such  lines  can  never 
meet  although  wye  cannot  follow  them  to  the  end. 
A  single  act  of  dishonesty  is  sufficient  to  suggest  the 
principle  that  all  dishonesty  is  wrong.  In  ordinary 
inductions  many  concurrent  facts  must  exist  before 


INSTKUCTION   II*    KATIONAL    SCiENCES. 

we  are  safe  in  inferring  a  principle,  and  then  we  are 
not  quite  sure  that  the  principle  extends  beyond  the 
facts  investigated.  Here  one  fact  suffices  to  bring 
up  before  the  mind  a  universal  and  necessary  prin 
ciple.  If  a  body  of  such  principles  exist,  it  follows 
that  there  must  be  a  source  in  the  mind  out  of  which 
they  come  or  out  of  which  comes  the  power  to  re 
cognize  them.  This  source  we  call  the  Reason,  and 
its  legitimate  products,  its  intuitions,  we  call  Primary 
Ideas — Primary,  because  arising  simultaneously  with 
experience,  it  is  only  by  their  means  that  experience 
can  be  understood.  God  made  the  universe  after 
archetypal  ideas  in  His  mind,  and  so  our  Primary 
Ideas  give  form  to  all  we  know  and  to  all  we  do. 

These  Primary  Ideas  may  be  arranged  as  previ 
ously  shown  into  three  categories,  the  True,  the 
Beautiful,  and  the  Good.  A  final  synthesis  may 
unite  them,  but  practically  it  is  best  to  consider 
them  separately,  marking,  as  they  do,  the  triune 
nature  of  man,  and  pointing,  as  perhaps  they  may, 
to  a  higher  Trinity. 

For  information  as  to  the  number,  nature,  and  re 
lations  of  these  Primary  Ideas,  students  must  search 
-works  on  Metaphysics.  Our  purpose  is  to  charac 
terize  them  only  so  far  as  is  necessary  to  make 
understood  what  we  have  to  say  concerning  the 
methods  of  teaching  the  sciences  of  whose  object- 
matter  they  form  a  part. 

The  idea  of  the  true  gives  law  to  the  Intellect. 
The  Reason  discovers  directly  only  necessary  truth, 
truth  the  opposite  of  which  cannot  be  conceived, 
but  such  truth  furnishes  the  conditions  under  which 
all  contingent  truth  is  made  to  appear.  The  trutt  9 
34* 


402        INSTRUCTION    IN    RATIONAL  SCIENCES. 

of  all  the  sciences  rest  ultimately  in  the  higher 
truths  reached  by  the  insight  of  the  Reason. 

The  idea  of  the  Beautiful  gives  law  to  the  Feel 
ings.  An  object  is  noticed,  say  a  rose,  and  in  addi- 
lion  to  those  of  its  qualities  which  immediately 
effect  the  senses,  it  is  found  to  possess  something 
which  leads  us  to  pronounce  it  beautiful.  What 
is  that  something?  and  whence  the  power  that 
reveals  it?  To  the  first  question  no  answer  will 
be  attempted  here  ;  but  to  the  second  no  hesitation 
is  felt  in  saying  that  the  source  of  the  idea  of  the 
Beautiful  is  in  the  Reason.  We  discover  Beauty  as 
we  discover  truth  by  means  of  an  original  power 
with  which  God  has  endowed  us.  The  beauty  of  a 
particular  object  may  seem  to  result  from  an  anal 
ysis  of  objective  properties,  but  further  considera 
tion  will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  idea  of  the 
Beautiful,  like  the  idea  of  the  True,  is  not  derived 
from  but  is  necessary  to  experience ;  and  that  it 
furnishes  the  forms  with  which  all  beauty  corre 
lates.  We  are  able,  indeed,  not  only  to  criticise  the 
beauties  of  nature,  but  to  create  ourselves  forms  of 
beauty  and  express  them  in  a  manner  calculated  to 
awaken  emotions  of  the  Beautiful  in  all  beholders. 

The  idea  of  the  Good  gives  law  to  the  Will.  A 
child  knows  but  cannot  be  taught  what  is  good. 
Without  an  idea  of  the  Good  native  to  the  mind, 
the  distinction  of  right  and  wrong  would  be  as 
impossible  to  a  man  as  to  a  brute.  The  idea  of 
right  and  wrong  cannot  be  a  generalization  of  con 
sequences,  because  it  appears  full  formed  on  the 
first  occasion.  The  Reason  issues  forth  a  voice  to 
all  who  will  listen  to  it  demanding  spiritual  excel- 


INSTRUCTION"  IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES.        i03 

Jence —  demanding  love  to  man  and  love  to  God. 
There  are  appetites-,  passions,  propensities  ever 
tempting  men  to  wrong-doing,  ever  leading  them 
down  to  degradation  and  ruin ;  but  the  Spirit  is  at 
war  with  these  influences  of  the  flesh,  it  warns  men 
of  danger,  and  points  out  the  way  to  life,  light, 
and  love. 

2.  THE  CRITERIA. — How  are  we  to  measure  what 
is  true,  beautiful,  and  good?  "What  is  truth?'* 
asked  Pontius  Pilate  of  Christ  when  brought  be 
fore  him,  and  the  problem  has  been  propounded 
thousands  of  times  before  and  since.  So,  too,  the 
questions,  what  is  beauty  ?  and  what  is  goodness  ? 
have  occupied  a  large  place  in  the  investigations  of 
speculative  Philosophers.  It  is  not  our  intention 
to  consider  here  the  different  theories  which  have 
been  presented  respecting  the  measure  of  truth,  the 
standard  of  taste,  or  the  rule  of  right.  It  appears 
to  me,  however,  that  these  Criteria  are  neither 
found  in  the  Objective  nor  the  Subjective,  but  in 
the  relation  between  the  two.  If  I  might  venture 
to  suggest  a  common  Criterion  for  estimating  truth, 
beauty,  and  goodness,  I  would  do  it  in  these  words: 
CONFORMITY  OF  OBJECT  AND  IDEA.  Expressed  with 
reference  to  each,  it  should  be  stated  as  follows  :  The 
measure  of  truth  is  conformity  of  the  Objective  with  the 
Idea  of  the  True  ;  the  Standard  of  beauty  is  confer- 
mity  of  the  Objective  with  the  Idea  of  the  Beautiful ; 
and  the  rule  of  right  is  conformity  of  the  Objective  with 
the  Idea  of  the  Good.  With  God  there  must  be  com 
plete  conformity  of  object  and  idea,  but  with  man 
this  conformity  can  never  be  complete,  because  he 


INSTRUCTION    IN   RATIONAL   SCIENCES. 

cannot  comprehend  the  Absolute  and  the  Infinite. 
We  know,  indeed,  that  there  must  be  a  Being 
having  unconditioned  perfections,  but  we  cannot 
by  searching  find  Him  out.  The  Eeason  is  the 
light  of  the  soul — the  spark  of  Divinity  within  us ; 
but  it  is  still  human  Reason  with  finite  powers. 

3.  AXIOMATIC  TRUTHS.  —  An  Axiomatic  Truth  is 
a  self-evident,   necessary,   and   universal  principle, 
known  to  be  true  by  intuition.     Such  truths  under 
the   names   of   Axioms,    Canons,   Maxims,   Rules, 
furnish  the  foundation  upon  which  all  the  sciences 
rest.    The  whole  body  of  Axiomatic  Truths  belongs 
to  the  Rational  Sciences.     It  is  the  province  of 
these  sciences  to  discover  them,  to  test  them,  and 
to   arrange  them  into   classes.     Those   which   are 
evolved   from   the   idea  of  the   True   and  can  be 
tested   by  the   measure  of  truth  belong  to  Philo 
sophy  ;  those  which  are  evolved  from  the  idea  of 
the  Beautiful  and  can  be  tested  by  the  standard  of 
beauty  belong  to  ^Esthetics ;  and  those  which  are 
evolved   from   the   idea  of  the  Good  and  can  be 
tested  by  the  rule  of  right  belong  to  Ethics.     Lists 
of  such  principles  as  are  considered  to  belong  to 
each  of  these  sciences  respectively  might  be  given, 
but  they  are  not  essential  to  the  purpose  of  a  work 
like  this. 

4.  DEDUCTIONS  AND  DEMONSTRATIONS. — The  Deduc 
tions  and  Demonstrations  of  Philosophy  are  those 
of  Mathematics,  Logic,  Physics,  which  are,  in  tho 
sense  now  contemplated,  branches  of  it. 

The  Deductions  and  Demonstrations  which  relate 


INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL   SCIENCES.          405 

to  the  laws  of  taste,  or  the  cannons  of  criticism  con 
stitute  an  important  part  of  ^Esthetics. 

The  Deductions  and  Demonstrations  which  relate 
to  the  rules  which  govern  human  conduct  belong  to 
Ethics. 

All  Deductions  and  Demonstrations  are  essentially 
the  same,  and,  having  explained  their  nature  on  a 
preceding  page,  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  it  here. 

5.  APPLICATIONS. — Philosophy  has  its  applications 
in  the  applications  of  all  the  sciences.  The  wise 
recognize  in  every  single  truth  the  evidence  of  a 
greater  truth  which  involves  it,  and  trace  the  most 
general  of  all  truths  directly  to  their  source  in  the 
Reason.  The  Reason,  if  rightly  used,  carries  the 
thoughtful  inquirer  up  to  God,  who  placed  it  mid 
way,  as  it  were,  between  earth  and  Heaven,  where, 
not  too  distant  to  preside  over  the  affairs  of  men,  it 
could  still  see  the  glories  of  the  Promised  Land 
afar  off. 

^Esthetics  has  its  applications  in  all  that  is  beau 
tiful  in  nature  and  art.  No  enumeration  can  be 
made  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  They  are  found 
everywhere,  above,  beneath,  and  around  us.  Then 
we  nave  Architecture,  Painting,  Sculpture,  Poetry, 
Music — what  tongue  can  picture  the  beauties  which 
they  express?  But  neither  nature  nor  art  can  fur 
nish  a  type  of  beauty  so  perfect  as  that  which  may 
be  seen  in  a  beautiful  life. 

Ethics  has  its  applications  in  what  relates  to 
human  rights  and  duties.  These  have  reference  to 
all  the  relations  of  life,  in  the  family,  school,  state, 
and  church.  Ethics  teaches  men  how  to  live, 


406       INSTRUCTION    IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

Religion  prepares  them  for  a  state  of  immortality 
beyond  the  grave. 

Thus  would  I  construct  into  a  system  the  object- 
matter  of  the  Rational  Sciences.  In  so  doing,  I 
desire  to  detract  nothing  from  the  importance  or  the 
dignity  of  other  sciences.  I  am  profoundly  con 
vinced,  however,  that  all  the  sciences  point  upward 
toward  a  centre,  and  that  that  centre  is  the  Reason ; 
and  I  am  as  profoundly  convinced  that  the  Reason 
points  upward  to  a  Source,  and  that  that  Source  is 
God. 

It  needs  not  now  that  much  space  be  taken  up  in 
discussing  the  methods  of  teaching  the  sciences 
which  have  just  been  characterized.  A  teacher  who 
understands  them,  and  enters  upon  the  work  of  in 
struction  with  a  love  for  it,  can  hardly  be  mistaken 
as  to  the  methods  to  be  adopted. 

All  the  education  a  child  can  receive  in  the  direc 
tion  of  the  Rational  Sciences,  is  to  increase  his 
experience.  He  should  be  allowed  every  oppor 
tunity  of  seeing  what  is  true,  beautiful,  arid  good ; 
and  his  own  heart  should  be  kept  pure  that  his 
sight  may  be  free  from  distortion.  A  child  can 
perceive  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness,  and  enjoy 
their  contemplation  long  before  he  can  analyze  the 
powers  or  the  process  by  which  he  does  it,  just  as 
he  can  see  long  before  he  can  understand  the  philo 
sophy  of  vision.  No  department  of  education  can 
be  nobler  than  that  which  opens  up  to  the  young 
these  sources  of  the  purest  enjoyment  earth  can 
furnish,  and  from  which  their  minds  and  hearts  can 


INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES.       407 

be  filled  with  images  of  perfection  that  will  ever 
tend  to  elevate  and  ennoble  them ;  but  this  kind  of 
education  is  rather  a  training  than  a  teaching  pro 
cess  ;  and,  in  its  details,  a  discussion  of  it  belongs 
more  appropriately  to  "  Methods  of  Culture"  than 
to  "  Methods  of  Instruction." 

Primary  Ideas  must  be  practically  operative  in  the 
mind  before  their  existence  or  potency  can  be  recog 
nized.  A  child  cannot  begin  to  think  without  their 
agency  being  involved  in  the  process.  A  child 
knows  that  his  mother's  face  to-day  is  the  same  face 
that  bent  over  him  yesterday;  that  another  face 
differing  from  his  mother's  is  not  hers ;  that  if  the 
stove  is  hot  it  cannot  be  cold ;  and  that  if  his  hand 
is  burned  against  the  stove,  something  burned  it; 
and,  in  these  simple  acts,  may  be  recognized  the 
great  Fundamental  Laws  of  Thought  as  stated  by 
Logicians — laws  according  to  which  all  thinking  is 
done.  But  these  laws  have  their  ground  in  the 
Reason — in  the  idea  of  the  True.  So,  too,  a  child 
is  pleased  with  what  is  beautiful,  and  can  determine 
what  is  good  at  a  very  early  age ;  thus  showing  that 
the  ideas  of  the  Beautiful  and  the  Good,  as  well  as 
of  the  True,  have  a  potential  existence  in  his  mind. 

But  while  these  ideas  are  operative  in  the  mind 
of  a  child,  and  thus  become  an  important  element 
to  be  considered  by  the  educator,  no  formal  instruc 
tion  can  be  given  in  respect  to  them  before  the 
mind  is  well  matured.  When  old  enough  to  notice 
what  passes  in  his  own  mind,  and  to  philosophize 
concerning  it,  the  student  may  be  taught  to  distin 
guish  Primary  Ideas,  to  investigate  their  nature  and 
relations,  and  to  arrange  them  into  clashes.  These 


408        INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

ideas  are  things  to  be  observed  and  discriminated 
by  the  powers  of  internal  perception.  The  mode 
of  investigating  them  does  not  differ,  as  I  suppose, 
from  that  followed  in  the  investigation  of  the  objects 
of  sense  ;  but  the  mind  has  great  difficulty  in  study 
ing  its  own  products,  and  especially  those  which  are 
as  deeply  hidden  and  as  much  beyond  the  power  of 
analysis  as  those  now  under  consideration.  !N"o 
forms  of  words,  no  analogical  illustrations  will  con 
vey  to  the  pupil's  mind  clear  instruction  concerning 
such  principles.  He  must  use  his  own  insight  to 
detect  them,  his  own  powers  of  observation  to  in 
dividualize  and  characterize  them.  All  he  can  learn 
of  them  must  be  realized  in  his  own  experience,  or 
his  knowledge  will  consist  only  of  skeleton  forms 
with  nothing  to  fill  them.  It  requires  long,  careful, 
tiresome  labor  to  reach  down  into  the  mind's  deepest 
self  and  study  the  secret  foundations  of  knowledge; 
but  all  who  possess  the  ability  and  the  patience  to 
accomplish  the  work  will  be  well  repaid. 

The  most  a  teacher  can  do  for  a  pupil  in  these 
abstruse  regions  of  thought  is  to  lead  him  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  limited  to  the 
unlimited,  from  the  conditioned  to  the  uncondi 
tioned.  For  example,  take  the  idea  of  space.  The 
pupil  knows  what  constitutes  a  particular  space,  he 
can  gradually  add  body  to  body  until  his  idea  of 
space  is  vastly  expanded,  and  then,  perhaps,  he  may 
rise  to  the  comprehension  of  that  space  which  con 
tains  the  universal  whole  of  things.  The  idea  of 
perfection  may  be  communicated  by  leading  the 
pupil  from  one  object  to  another,  each  more  perfect 


TNSTRUCTION  IN  RATIONAL  SCIENCES.     409 

than  the  preceding.  These  examples  will  serve  ibr 
all  cases  as  all  are  alike. 

It  ought  to  be  remarked  that  our  Primary  Idea*, 
as  a  whole,  have  not  been  carefully  studied  by  Phi 
losophers.  A  master-mind  is  needed  to  present 
them  in  an  order  suitable  for  study. 

Little  agreement  exists  among  writers  as  to  the 
Criteria  by  which  we  determine  what  is  true,  beau 
tiful,  or  good.  Practically,  however,  there  is  less 
diversity  of  opinion,  and  men  will  coincide  in  pro 
nouncing  a  thing  true,  beautiful,  or  good,  who  will 
differ  as  to  the  principles  which  guide  their  judg 
ments.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  we  can  see  more  clearly 
with  our  eyes  of  sense  than  with  our  eyes  of  Reason. 
In  teaching,  therefore,  it  seems  best,  as  has  been 
already  intimated,  to  acquaint  pupils  with  things 
that  are  true,  beautiful,  and  good  —  to  widen  their 
experience,  as  much  as  possible,  in  respect  to  nature, 
art,  and  life,  before  directing  their  attention  to  the 
abstract,  ideal  standards  of  perfection  which  the 
Reason  furnishes.  It  is,  indeed,  only  after  such 
experience  that  any  one  can  duly  appreciate  the 
noblest  power  God  has  given  to  men — the  power 
of  discriminating  truth  from  error,  beauty  from 
deformity,  right  from  wrong. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  common  Criterion  for 
determining  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness  is  Con 
formity  of  Object  and  Idea.  This  Idea  is  a  direct 
product  of  the  Reason ;  and  in  its  abstract  form  is 
perfect  and  alike  in  all  individuals.  The  Reason 
admits  no  culture ;  it  sees,  like  the  eye,  at  once  and 
correctly;  it  is  never  inconsistent  with  itself.  But 
the  faculties  that  take  cognizance  o?  the  Object  arc 

85 


410       INSTRUCTION   IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

liab/e  to  err.  It  is  scarcely  possible  for  an  Object  to 
be  so  presented  or  represented  to  the  mind  as  to 
stand  out  clear  in  its  essential  properties  and  rela 
tions.  Hence  men  differ  in  regard  to  what  is  true, 
beautiful,  and  good,  because  their  knowledge  is  im 
perfect.  Practically,  there  never  can  be  a  complete 
conformity  of  object  and  idea;  and,  practically,  each 
man  has  his  own  standard  of  perfection.  His  is 
the  most  perfect  standard  who  possesses  the  highest 
culture.  A  child  or  a  savage  must  have  a  low 
standard.  It  is  the  business  of  education,  as  applied 
here,  to  make  observation  more  exact,  the  memory 
more  tenacious,  the  imagination  more  faithful,  the 
judgment  more  true,  to  set  things  in  their  proper 
light,  to  free  thinking  from  all  imperfections,  to 
prepare  the  way  for  the  Reason ;  and  then  will 
appear  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness  in  all  the  per 
fection  which  a  human  mind  can  appreciate. 

Evolved  out  of  Primitive  Ideas  and  tested  by  the 
Criteria  of  the  Reason,  are  Axiomatic  Truths.  These 
principles  are  operative  in  the  mind  from  the  first 
dawning  of  intelligence.  No  experience  is  possible 
without  them,  and  yet  it  is  only  by  means  of  expe 
rience  that  we  become  conscious  of  their  existence, 
or  can  give  them  articulate  expression.  They  have 
been  called  "generalized  intuitions,"  and,  perhaps, 
this  name  designates  their  genesis  with  sufficient 
clearness,  as  it  certainly  points  out  the  mode  of 
teaching  them.  With  ordinary  experience,  Axiom 
atic  Truths  are  recognized  at  once  as  self-evideLt 
and  necessary;  but  they  cannot  be  so  recognized 
without  a  certain  degree  of  experience.  It  ought 
to  be  added,  however,  that  Axiomatic  Truths  are 


INSTIL  ol'ION   IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES.       411 

generalizations  of  an  entirely  different  kind  from 
those  of  the  Empirical  Sciences  —  the  latter  simply 
embrace  what  has  been  experienced,  while  the 
former  transcend  all  possible  experience. 

Dr.  M'Cosh,  in  discussing  the  nature  of  the  truths 
now  under  consideration,  uses  the  following  language 
not  less  valuable  to  the  Philosopher  than  suggestive 
to  the  Teacher.  uThe  principle"  (an  Axiomatic 
Truth)  "thus  discovered  and  enunciated  is  properly 
a  metaphysical  one ;  it  is  a  truth  above  sense,  a 
truth  of  mind,  a  truth  of  reason.  It  is  different  in 
its  origin  and  authority  from  the  general  rules 
reached  by  experience,  such  as  the  law  of  gravita 
tion,  or  the  law  of  chemical  affinity,  or  the  law  of 
the  distribution  of  animals  over  the  earth's  surface. 
These  latter  are  the  mere  generalizations  of  experi 
ence  necessarily  limited  ;  they  hold  good  merely  in 
the  measure  of  our  experience,  and  as  experience 
can  never  reach  all  possible  cases,  so  the  rule  can 
never  be  absolute ;  we  can  never  say  there  may  not 
be  exceptions.  Laws  of  the  former  kind  are  of  a 
higher  or  deeper  nature,  they  are  the  generalizations 
of  convictions  carrying  necessity  with  them,  and  a 
consequent  universality  in  their  very  nature.  They 
are  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  in  an  especial  sense 
philosophic  principles,  being  the  ground  to  which 
we  come  when  we  follow  any  S3Tstem  of  truth  suf 
ficiently  far  down,  and  competent  to  act  as  a  basis 
on  which  to  erect  a  superstructure  of  science.  They 
are  truths  of  our  original  constitution,  having  the 
sanction  of  Him  who  hath  given  us  our  constitution, 
and  graven  them  there  with  His  own  finger." 

"  It  is  ever  to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 


i!2       INSTRUCTION   IN   RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

detection  and  exact  expression  of  these  intuitive 
principles  is  always  a  delicate  and  is  often  a  most 
difficult  operation.  Did  they  fall  immediately  under 
the  eye  of  consciousness,  the  work  would  be  a  com 
paratively  easy  one ;  we  should  only  have  to  look 
within  in  order  to  see  them.  But  all  that  conscious 
ness  can  notice  are  their  individual  exercises  mixed 
up  with  one  another  and  with  all  other  actings  of 
the  mind.  It  requires  a  microscopic  eye  and  much 
analytic  skill,  to  detect  the  various  fibres  in  the  com 
plex  structure,  and  to  follow  each  through  its  various 
windings  and  entanglements  to  its  source." 

o  c? 

Reaching  the  stage  of  Deductions  and  Demonstra 
tions,  the  Rational  Sciences  become  virtually  as  to 
methods,  Formal  Sciences,  the  methods  of  teaching 
which  have  already  been  treated  of. 

Neither  need  much  be  said  in  this  connection 
concerning  the  methods  of  teaching  the  Applications 
of  the  Rational  Sciences,  because  wherever  principles 
are  applied  to  facts  the  process  is  the  same. 

The  work  of  teaching  must  commence  with  Ap 
plications.  All  a  child  does  he  is  impelled  to  do  by 
some  principle  operative  upon  him.  When  he  first 
learns  to  recognize  truth,  beauty,  or  goodness,  he 
does  it  by  applying  principles  active  in  his  mind  but 
of  which  he  is  unconscious.  In  the  field  of  Philoso 
phy,  let  the  teacher  present  to  him  truth  as  it  exists 
in  the  sciences,  at  first  simple,  afterwards,  more 
complex.  In  the  field  of  ^Esthetics,  let  the  teacher 
show  him  objects  beautiful,  grand,  sublime,  and 
teach  him  to  love  them.  In  the  field  of  Ethics,  let 
the  teacher  make  constant  appeals  to  his  conscience, 


INSTRUCTION    IN    RATIONAL    SCIENCES. 

quickening  it  by  exercise  in  determining  right  and 
wrong. 

Thus  growing  in  his  knowledge  of  what  is  true, 
beautiful,  and  good,  there  will  come  a  time  when 
turning  his  mind  in  upon  itself,  the  student  can  be 
hold  those  great,  universal,  and  necessary  principles 
which  condition  all  truth,  all  beauty,  and  all  good 
ness;  and,  armed  with  these,  he  can  then  go  forth, 
not  as  a  child  using  intellectual  instincts  simply,  but 
as  a  man  applying  the  Divine  gift  of  Reason,  to 
interpret  the  world  of  matter,  of  mind,  of  life. 
85* 


CHAPTER  VI. 

INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

HISTORY  describes  the  past  condition  and  actions 
of  men,  and  investigates  the  causes  which  have 
operated  to  produce  them.  History  may  be  thus 
either  a  Narrative  of  Facts  or  a  System  of  Philo 
sophy,  and  methods  of  teaching  it  must  be  chosen 
adapted  to  the  different  kinds  of  object-matter  to 
which  they  are  Ipplied.  We  will  therefore  speak, 
first,  of  Methods  of  Teaching  the  Facts  of  History ; 
and,  afterwards,  of  Methods  of  Teaching  the  Philo 
sophy  of  History. 

I.  Methods  of  Teaching  the  Facts  of  History. 

The  Facts  of  History  comprise  the  sum  of  the 
events  that  man  has  brought  about  in  all  the  teem 
ing  centuries  since  first  he  inhabited  the  earth.  The 
number  is  beyond  the  power  of  the  imagination  to 
conceive,  and  Historians  do  not  attempt  to  enumer 
ate  them.  They  describe  some  of  the  grandest  and 
most  interesting  features  of  a  nation's  life,  and 
leave  the  rest  to  be  inferred  or  forgotten. 

The  great  Masters  of  History  relate  how  and  by 
whom  nations  were  settled  ;  how  they  were  pro 
tected  in  infancy,  and  what  strength  and  prosperity 
they  attained  in  manhood ;  and  if  fallen  they  have, 
how  they  fell.  They  tell  the  story  of  their  civil 


THE    FACTS    OF    HISTORY.  415 

and  political  affairs,  their  commerce,  manufactures, 
agriculture,  arts,  sciences,  and  domestic  life  —  their 
provisions  for  education,  systems  of  religion,  codes 
of  laws,  and  forms  of  government.  They  describe 
the  results  of  their  wars  at  home  and  abroad,  the 
revolutions  through  which  they  have  passed,  their 
manly  resistance  to  tyranny  on  the  one  hand  or 
their  tame  submission  to  slavery  on  the  other,  and 
those  great  throes  which  every  healthy  nation  makes 
to  cast  off  the  evil  influences  that,  cancer-like, 
threaten  to  eat  away  its  life  or  those  spasmodic 
death-struggles  which  mark  a  decaying  nation's 
downfall. 

Such  are  the  Facts  of  History,  and  we  will  con 
sider:  1.  The  nature  of  these  Facts.  2.  The  pecu 
liar  difficulties  which  are  encountered  in  their  study. 

3.  A  proper  course  of  study  in  respect  to  them. 

4.  General  suggestions  in  regard  to  teaching  them. 

1 .  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  FACTS  OF  HISTORY.  —  Suf 
ficient  has  been  said  elsewhere  in  regard  to  the 
method  of  imparting  to  a  child  a  knowledge  of 
ordinary  facts  ;  but  Historical  facts  generally  differ 
from  other  facts  in  several  important  particulars. 

Historical  facts  as  taught  in  our  schools  must 
nearly  always  be  furnished  by  testimony.  A  large 
number  of  the  facts  which  constitute  the  natural 
sciences  can  either  be  observed  directly  or  verified 
by  experiment.  The  pupil  is  not  compelled  to  rely 
upon  what  others  say  ;  he  can  examine  for  himself. 
In  history,  however,  the  case  is  different ;  his  senses 
are  of  little  use ;  he  must  rely  upon  authority. 

Historical  facts  are  connected  by  synchronal  or 


416        INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

chronological  relations,  and  not  by  relations  of  kino 
or  quality.  The  reverse  of  this  is  the  case  with  the 
natural  sciences,  and  it  must  constitute  a  difference 
between  these  sciences  and  History. 

Historical  facts  are  the  acts  of  Free  Agents.  All 
else  is  controlled  by  inexorable  laws  —  moves  only 
as  it  is  moved  by  forces  acting  from  without ;  but 
man  is  a  law  unto  himself,  and  acts  of  his  own  will. 
These  differences  cannot  be  safely  overlooked  in 
teaching  History. 

2.  THE  PECULIAR  DIFFICULTIES  WHICH  ARE  EN 
COUNTERED  IN  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  FACTS  OF  HISTORY. 
—  Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  events  recorded  in 
History  and  the  circumstances  controlling  their  nar 
ration,  peculiar  difficulties  are  encountered  by  the 
student  in  obtaining  a  correct  knowledge  of  them. 
These  events  occurred  in  the  Past — many  of  them 
in  the  distant  Past,  and  this  alone  is  calculated  to 
cast  doubt  upon  their  authenticity;  but,  in  addition 
to  this,  when  we  consider  the  proneness  of  mankind 
to  misrepresent  their  own  actions,  the  prejudices 
of  Historians,  and  their  too  often  scanty  and  unre 
liable  information,  and  the  influences  which  may 
have  subsequently  tended  to  pervert  what  was  origi 
nally  fairly  represented,  we  may  well  wronder  whether 
there  is  any  truth  at  all  in  History. 

Writers  upon  the  Natural  Sciences  lessen  the 
labor  of  learners  by  making  careful  classifications — 
classes,  orders,  genera,  species.  Without  this,  the 
boldest  student  would  hardly  undertake  the  task 
of  mastering  the  vast  multitude  of  facts  which 
these  sciences  now  comprehend.  The  Facts  of 


THE    FACTS    OF    HISTORY.  417 

History  do  not  admit  similar  scientific  classificatio?i, 
Cotemporaneous  events  can  be  grouped  together, 
or  an  order  of  succession  can  be  followed  in  nar 
rating  Historical  facts ;  but  that  power  of  associa 
tion,  so  valuable  to  men  of  science,  which  enables 
us  to  recall  one  thing  from  its  resemblance  to  some 
thing  else,  cannot  be  used  to  much  advantage  in 
the  study  of  History. 

Science  in  almost  all  her  departments  reveals  a 
series  of  effects  and  causes  —  conditions  and  condi 
tioning.  In  nature,  like  causes  produce  like  effects 
regardless  of  time  or  place.  Hence  the  truths  dis 
covered  by  the  ancient  philosophers  are  valid  to 
day.  The  events  of  History  are  not  uncaused. 
There  may  be  chains  of  causation  linking  all  of 
them  together.  But  he  who  regards  the  Facts  of 
History  i:i  the  same  light  with  which  he  regards 
the  facts  of  other  sciences,  will  but  poorly  compre 
hend  them.  Man  has  a  spiritual,  as  well  as  a  mate 
rial,  nature;  and  this  enables  him  to  move  against, 
as  well  as  with,  nature.  The  building  of  a  house, 
the  making  of  a  law,  the  fighting  of  a  battle,  are 
facts,  very  different  in  meaning,  from  the  consolida 
tion  of  a  rock,  the  uniting  of  an  acid  and  an  alkali, 
or  the  rushing  of  a  storm.  The  former  class  of 
facts  are  the  results  of  a  free  choice,  while  the 
latter  class  are  the  effects  of  imperative  laws. 

These  instances  sufficiently  exemplify  the  prin 
cipal  peculiar  difficulties  with  which  a  student  will 
meet  in  the  study  of  History.  The  want  of  their 
appreciation  has  led  both  teachers  and  learners  into 
the  most  serious  errors. 


4-18       INSTRUCTION    IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

C.  A  COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  THE  FACTS  OF  HISTORY, 
—  If  all  other  studies  were  neglected,  a  life-time  is 
much  too  short  to  acquaint  oneself  fully  with  all 
the  Facts  of  History  which  have  been  thought 
worthy  of  being  recorded.  Our  schools  can  permit 
their  pupils  to  devote  but  a  small  portion  of  their 
time  to  the  study  of  History.  Hence,  the  impor 
tance  of  the  inquiry  as  to  what  parts  of  History 
should  be  studied;  and  what  order  should  be 
observed  in  studying  them. 

The  sources  of  Historical  information  open  to 
the  student,  may  be  classified  as  follows:  first, 
Detailed  Histories.  By  these  I  mean  Histories  which 
contain  a  full  account  of  some  particular  nation, 
state,  or  period  of  time.  Some  of  these  Histories 
are  very  voluminous.  Second,  Universal  Histories. 
Universal  Histories  are  such  as  profess  to  give  an 
account  of  all  the  most  important  Historical  facts 
in  one  connected  narrative.  They  differ  greatly  in 
extent,  the  number  of  volumes  in  some  instances 
being  but  a  few,  and  in  others  extending  to  more 
than  a  hundred.  Third,  Compends  of  History.  These 
contain  brief  outlines  of  some  of  the  less  interest 
ing  or  less  important  parts  of  History,  with  fuller 
details  respecting  other  parts.  The  most  extensive 
Compends  of  History  correspond  in  fullness  and 
nature  of  details  with  the  briefest  Universal  Histo 
ries.  Fourth,  Fragments  of  History.  This  class  ia 
intended  to  embrace  the  Biographies  of  individuals, 
Descriptions  of  particular  places  or  events,  Accounts 
of  travels,  voyages,  &c.  They  constitute  the  mate 
rials  of  which  History  is  made  up,  and  may  therefore 
be  considered  Fragments  of  History. 


THE   FACTS    OF    HISTORY.  419 

I  will  now  indicate  a  course  of  study  in  History 
which  will  be  found  practical,  and,  I  think,  adapted 
to  the  condition  of  our  schools. 

The  first  Historical  matter  I  would  place  in  the 
hands  of  children  to  be  read  or  studied  would  be 
what  I  have  denominated  Fragments  of  History. 
Children  commence  learning  all  things  by  frag 
ments  ;  and,  if  written  in  a  suitable  style,  they  will 
read  the  kind  of  writings  now  designated  with  re 
markable  avidity.  Of  this,  the  extensive  sale  of  such 
works  as  Goodrich's  and  Abbott's  Histories,  and  the 
Rollo  Books,  is  a  sufficient  proof.  This  matter,  in 
the  form  of  voyages,  travels,  biographical  sketches, 
historical  narratives,  may  be  arranged  in  lessons  for 
reading  in  schools,  it  may  be  studied  and  recited,  or 
it  may  be  read  at  home.  I  cannot  too  earnestly  in 
sist  that  it  is  the  duty  of  parents  and  teachers  to  en 
courage  children  in  a  course  of  reading  of  the  kind 
now  referred  to.  They  can  accumulate  in  this  way 
a  vast  store  of  facts,  before  they  reach  the  age  of 
twelve,  and  before  this  age  they  are  generally  unable 
to  enter  upon  a  more  systematic  course  of  study. 

I  would  next  require  children  to  study  in  detail 
the  principal  facts  in  the  History  of  their  native 
land.  ~No  one  can  well  do  without  this  knowledge, 
and  to  the  citizen  it  seems  indispensable.  The  law 
ought  to  require  the  History  of  the  United  States  to 
be  taught  in  all  puplic  schools.  I  am  well  aware 
that  the  History  of  one  country  cannot  be  fully  un 
derstood  without  some  knowledge  of  the  Histories 
of  other  countries  with  which  it  has  been  connected; 
but  teaching  must  begin  somewhere,  and  less  diffi 
culty  will  be  found  in  commencing  with  the  History 


420     INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

of  one's  own  country  than  with  that  of  distant 
conntries,  or  with  general  History.  The  reason  is 
that  pupils  are  better  acquainted  with  the  events 
that  have  transpired  in  their  own  country  than  with 
those  that  have  transpired  in  others,  and  are  na 
turally  more  anxious  to  increase  their  knowledge  in 
respect  to  the  former  than  in  respect  to  the  latter. 

A  knowledge  of  the  History  of  their  own  country 
is  about  all  that  can  be  expected  of  pupils  in  our 
common  schools;  but  pupils  in  High  Schools,  Acade 
mies,  and  Colleges  should  study  a  good  Compend  of 
Universal  History.  This  may  be  used  as  a  text-book ; 
but  the  teacher  should  enliven  his  instruction  by 
imparting  many  additional  facts,  and  more  Detailed 
Histories  should  be  at  hand  so  that  the  pupils  might 
frequently  refer  to  them.  In  this  way,  quite  an  ex 
tensive  knowledge  of  History  can  be  acquired. 

It  does  not  frequently  happen  that  the  time  allotted 
to  History  will  permit  a  more  comprehensive  course 
than  that  now  indicated ;  but,  if  so,  I  would  recom 
mend  the  study  of  the  Detailed  Histories  of  those 
Countries  in  which  we  feel  the  deepest  interest, 
which  have  exerted  the  greatest  influence  upon  us, 
or  with  which  we  are  most  closely  connected. 
Among  these  countries  I  need  scarcely  name  Judea, 
Greece,  and  Rome ;  England,  France,  and  Germany. 
No  one  who  aspires  to  be  a  scholar  can  neglect  the 
reading  of  the  Histories  of  these  Countries,  if  he  be 
under  the  necessity  of  pursuing  the  study  by  him 
self.  The  Bible  is  the  most  important  of  all  His 
tories,  since  it  is  the  History  of  God's  dealings  with 
men.  Its  truth  is  for  all  nations,  for  all  tongues, 
and  for  all  people. 


THE  FACTS  OF  HISTORY.  421 

4.  GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS  IN  REGARD  TO  TEACHING 
THE  FACTS  OF  HISTORY. — There  are  two  principal 
methods  of  arrangement  followed  in  writing  works 
on  History,  the  Ethnographic  and  the  Synchronistic. 
The  Ethnographic  method  narrates  the  History  of  a 
particular  race  or  nation,  without  reference  to  the 
History  of  other  races  or  other  nations  any  further 
than  is  necessary  to  illustrate  or  explain  the  main 
design.  Detailed  Histories,  in  the  sense  I  have 
defined  them,  are  Ethnographic  in  their  method. 
Following  the  Synchronistic  method,  an  Historian 
would  group  together  and  present  in  one  view  the 
events  of  a  particular  era  wherever  they  might  have 
occurred.  Universal  Histories  and  Compends  of 
Ilistory  are  usually  arranged  according  to  the  Syn 
chronistic  method.  The  teacher  will  at  once  per 
ceive  that  the  best  method  to  be  followed  in  teaching 
depends  upon  the  object  he  desires  to  attain.  When 
written,  Histories  may  be  studied  in  a  Progressive  or 
a  Regressive  order.  It  is  evident  that,  if  events  are 
arranged  in  a  chronological  order,  we  can  either 
ascend  the  scale  thus  formed  or  descend  it — we  can 
either  proceed  from  antecedents  to  consequents  or 
from  consequents  to  antecedents.  Teachers  usually 
follow  the  progressive  order,  and  for  beginners,  at 
least,  it  is  the  most  natural  and  the  most  interest 
ing.  For  advanced  pupils  and  in  reviews,  I  have 
found  the  Regressive  method  productive  of  good 
results. 

A  knowledge  of  Geography  and  Anthropology 
are  very  essential  to  the  intelligent  study  of  Ilistory. 
Geography  treats  of  the  physical  features  of  the 
earth,  and  the  present  condition  of  society  ;  and  this 

36 


422     INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

forms  the  basis  upon  which  rest  the  Facts,  and,  in 
part,  the  Philosophy  of  History.  The  known  in 
History  is  the  Present,  and  the  Past  can  hest  be 
understood  by  a  comparison  with  it ;  for  the  causes 
that  modif}r  our  social  relations;  give  form  to 
Governments ;  advance  the  interests  of  science,  art, 
education,  and  religion ;  promote  reformations,  and 
bring  about  revolutions — are  the  same  now  as  in  by 
gone  centuries.  Anthropology  treats  of  man — his 
body,  his  mind,  his  relations  to  the  world  about 
him  ;  and  this  science  is  even  more  intimately  con 
nected  with  the  study  of  History  than  Geography. 
Man  lived  History;  it  is  a  record  of  himself;  and 
can  be  understood  only  by  understanding  himself. 
Says  Emerson,  "  Of  the  universal  mind  each  indi 
vidual  mind  is  one  more  incarnation.  All  its  pro 
perties  consist  in  him.  Each  new  fact  in  his  private 
experience  flashes  a  light  on  what  great  bodies  of 
men  have  done,  and  the  crises  of  his  life  refer  to 
national  crises.  Every  revolution  was  first  a  thought 
in  one  man's  mind,  and  when  the  same  thought 
occurs  to  another  man,  it  is  the  key  to  that  era. 
Every  reform  was  once  a  private  opinion,  and  when 
it  shall  be  a  private  opinion  again,  it  will  solve  the 
problem  of  the  age.  The  fact  narrated  must  cor 
respond  to  something  in  me  to  be  credible,  or  in 
telligible." 

The  Historical  facts  communicated,  and  the  man 
ner  of  communicating  them  should  be  such  as  to 
attract  the  attention  and  enlist  the  sympathy  of  the 
class  of  pupils  for  whom  the  instruction  is  intended. 
A  Hume's  or  a  Hallam's,  a  Gibbon's  or  a  Guizot's 
Histories  are  works  unsuitable  for  children,  both  in 


FACTS    OF    HISTORY.  423 

matter  and  in  style.  It  is  a  common  error  in  our 
schools  to  place  Histories  of  the  United  States  in 
the  hands  of  children  who  cannot  appreciate  the 
facts  contained  in  them,  or  understand  the  language 
in  which  they  are  written.  The  best  that  can  be 
expected  under  such  circumstances  is  the  mere 
memorized  recitation  of  the  words  of  the  text-book. 
Facts  of  History  can  be  found  adapted  to  pupils  of 
any  age,  and  expressed  in  forms  which  render  them 
agreeable  to  every  taste  ;  and  the  teacher  who  fails 
to  do  his  duty  in  selecting  them  can  offer  but  a  poor 
excuse. 

Our  works  on  History  should  present  a  lively 
picture  of  the  Past.  Even  the  best  Histories  con 
tain  much  useless  matter.  It  concerns  us  little  to 
know  the  lineage  of  kings  and  queens,  the  intrigues 
of  courts,  or  the  plans  of  campaigns ;  but  it  would 
interest  us  much  to  be  told  how  people  in  past  times 
built  their  houses,  worked  their  fields,  or  educated 
their  children — what  style  of  dress  they  wore,  what 
kind  of  food  they  eat,  what  books  they  read.  We 
want  Encyclopedias  and  Gazetteers  for  reference, 
and  they  may  be  full  of  dates,  statistical  tables,  and 
lists  of  names ;  but  school  Histories  should  present 
a  true  and  life-like  daguerreotype  of  things  as  they 
w^ere  —  not  a  mere  dead  body  with  bones,  muscles, 
and  nerves  minutely  described,  but  without  any  soul 
in  it  There  is  no  good  reason  why  History  should 
not  be  as  interesting  to  the  young  as  Fiction.  From 
School  Histories,  let  bald,  dry  facts  be  omitted ;  let 
the  customs,  manners,  and  doings  of  bygone  people 
^-life's  quiet  ongoings  as  well  as  its  comedies  and 
tragedies,  be  described  in  vivid  word-pictures,  and 


424     INSTRUCTION   IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

History  will  become  a  favorite  study  in  all  oui 
schools. 

History  should  be  taught  from  a  series  of  pro 
gressive  stand-points.  In  the  History  of  every 
nation,  there  are  certain  prominent  events  from 
which,  as  centres,  other  minor  events  have  seemed 
to  emanate,  and  to  which  they  bear  reference.  These 
Historical  nuclei  with  their  connected  circumstances 
should  be  minutely  described,  and,  if  well  estab 
lished  in  the  learner's  mind,  he  will  recollect  and 
understand  other  less  important  events  from  their 
relation  to  them.  It  is  only  of  these  great  events 
that  we  need  to  know  the  dates  or  the  minute  par 
ticulars.  It  seems  a  useless  waste  of  time  and  labor 
to  commit  to  memory  a  great  number  of  dates  to 
be  speedily  forgotten.  These  centres  of  influence 
in  History  do  not  exist  simply  in  the  History  of 
particular  nations,  but  they  mark  certain  periods  in 
the  History  of  the  world.  The  whole  of  human 
life  is  exhibited  in  a  great  drama,  containing  a 
series  of  connected  and  dependent  Acts — each  sepa 
rated  from  the  others  by  intervals  of  compara 
tive  rest. 

The  style  of  Historical  narrative  should  be  clear, 
concise,  and  forcible.  Long,  elaborate,  ornate  sen 
tences  are  out  of  place,  at  least,  in  Histories  designed 
for  school  text-books.  It  would  be  unnecessary  to 
make  this  suggestion,  if  the  error  it  is  intended  to 
point  out  were  less  general. 

A  knowledge  of  History  can  be  turned  to  good 
account  in  all  the  varied  affairs  of  life;  its  study 
furnishes  valuable  intellectual  discipline,  and  for 
the  purposes  of  moral  instruction  its  claimfl  are  of 


THE   FACTS    OF   HISTORY. 

A  higher  order  than  those  of  any  other  branch  of 
learning.  No  better  opportunity  of  awakening  vir 
tuous  feelings  can  occur  to  the  teacher  than  is  pre 
sented  in  the  study  of  History,  and  it  is  nowise  out 
of  place  here  to  urge  that  judicious  advantage  be 
taken  of  it.  Moral  examples  have  more  influence 
upon  the  young  than  moral  precepts.  History  pre 
sents  many  examples  of  good  and  great  men  and 
women  who  honored  by  their  noble  deeds  the  age 
and  country  in  which  they  lived.  The  heart  is 
more  easily  moved  to  virtue  by  incidental  than  by 
direct  teaching;  and  the  faithful  teacher  will  not 
fail  to  improve  the  occasions  which  so  frequently 
occur  in  reciting  lessons  in  History  by  planting 
moral  seeds  in  the  open  hearts  about  him,  well 
knowing  that  they  will  germinate  and  eventually 
produce  rich  fruit.  No  study  is  so  useful  in  the 
formation  of  character  as  History.  In  the  study 
of  all  other  sciences  pupils  come  into  the  possession 
of  interesting  facts  and  valuable  principles,  but  in 
the  study  of  History  they  see  life.  Great  deeds  are 
done  by  beings  like  themselves,  and  they  cannot 
resist  the  desire  to  do  like  deeds.  This  cultivates 
the  will,  forms  character,  makes  men. 

A  teacher  may  be  greatly  aided  in  teaching 
History  by  using  suitable  maps,  charts,  engravings, 
and  books  for  reference.  The  customs,  manners, 
works  of  art,  &c.,  which  characterize  the  nations 
of  the  Past  might  be  represented  in  a  series  of 
views  by  means  of  a  Magic  Lantern  or  a  Stereo 
scope.  An  article  of  dress,  an  implement  of  war 
fare,  the  fragment  of  a  statue,  a  coin  used  cen 
se* 


426     INSTRUCTION    IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

turieu   ago,  if  presented   to   illustrate   a  point   in 
History,  would  create  much  interest  in  the  study. 

II.  Methods  of  Teaching  the  Philosophy  of 
History. 

The  preceding  discussion  has  had  reference  to 
the  Facts  of  History  and  the  methods  of  teaching 
them.  Until  quite  recently,  the  Facts  of  History 
constituted  the  whole  of  History.  In  other  depart 
ments  of  study,  investigations  were  pushed  beyond 
facts  up  to  principles  ;  but  the  Historian  seemed  to 
think  his  task  well  done  when  he  had  set  in  proper 
array  the  actions  of  men  and  accompanied  them 
with  such  reflections  as  seemed  to  him  calculated 
either  to  interest  or  instruct  his  readers.  It  is  not 
hard  to  conceive  why  the  science  of  History  should 
be  later  in  its  origin  and  slower  in  its  growth  than 
other  sciences.  Its  facts  are  less  easily  ascertained 
and  more  difficult  to  verify;  the  causes  of  these 
facts  are  many  times  so  hidden  as  to  be  considered, 
even  by  wise  men,  inscrutable;  its  generalizations 
require  broader  views  and  a  deeper  insight;  and  its 
ultimate  formative  principles  are  the  most  profound 
which  the  human  mind  ever  essayed  to  grapple. 
Besides,  in  a  hierarchy  of  the  sciences,  Historv 
occupies  the  highest  place.  It  extends  its  all-em 
bracing  principles  around  all  science,  all  art,  all 
human  conduct,  and  combines  them  into  one  organic 
whole  ;  finds  unity  in  the  diversity  of  the  creation  : 
and  exhibits  all  things  as  the  development  of  the 
primal  ideas  after  which  God  made  them.  A  true 
teacher  will  not  stop  when  he  has  described  the 
facts  of  some  historic  era,  and  moralized  upon 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  427 

them.  He  will  feel  that  something  more  is  due 
to  students  whom  he  desires  to  make  thinkers  than 
to  have  them  merely  con  life's  fitful  story,  or  gaze 
at  the  strange  drama  man  has  acted  upon  the  world's 
broad  stage. 

The  law  of  History  has  not  "been  fully  ascertained, 
data  may  now  be  wanting  to  ascertain  it;  but 
although  all  Historical  phenomena  cannot  be  fol 
lowed  back  to  their  primary  causes  or  forward  to 
their  ultimate  effects,  although  no  human  intellect 
can  tell  where  the  series  of  events  began  or  when 
it  will  end,  to  stop  short  of  doing  what  may  be 
done,  is  to  dwarf  the  intellect  and  take  away  much 
that  adds  interest  to  the  study  of  History. 

If  the  condition  of  society  is  not  the  result  of 
chance,  it  must  be  due  to  the  operation  of  laws. 
"When  these  laws  are  ascertained  and  formed  into 
a  system,  they  constitute  the  Philosophy  of  History. 
Upon  the  nature  of  this  Philosophy  must  depend 
the  methods  of  teaching  it,  and  this  consideration 
will  determine  the  order  of  the  present  discussion. 

No  argument  will  be  entered  upon  here  to  dis 
prove  the  doctrine  of  chance.  The  doctrine  is 
such  that  no  one  can  entertain  it  whose  mind  is 
able  to  comprehend  even  the  most  common  con 
nexions  and  uniformities  which  are  presented  in 
the  world  about  him.  Nor  is  the  doctrine  more 
applicable  to  the  actions  of  men  than  to  the  works 
of  nature.  In  the  latter  case  the  regularities  may 
not  be  so  apparent,  but  they  are  sufficiently  so  to 
discard  from  the  minds  of  all  who  rightly  reflect 
upon  them,  the  idea  of  chance ;  and,  if  otherwise, 


428     INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

each  individual  knows  that  he  has,  and  generally 
he  can  give,  a  reason,  good  or  bad,  for  the  acts  he 
has  committed. 

If  human  actions  are  not  the  result  of  blind 
chance  working  from  no  motive  and  directed  to 
wards  no  end,  they  must  be  the  effects  of  certain 
causes  —  the  consequents  of  certain  antecedents, 
and  laws  must  rule  the  moral  as  well  as  t^e  phy 
sical  world.  Philosophy  presents  no  more  impor 
tant  and  no  more  difficult  problem  than  that  which 
relates  to  the  origin  of  these  laws.  Solve  this;  and 
there  is  solved  the  great  problem  of  History  —  the 
great  problem  of  humanity. 

The  laws  from  whose  operation  human  conduct 
proceeds,  may  originate  from  three  sources:  1st, 
From  conditions  imposed  by  matter  upon  mind;  2d, 
From  conditions  imposed  by  mind  upon  matter  and  upon 
itself ;  3d,  From  conditions  imposed  by  Crod  upon  both 
matter  and  mind.  Hence  there  can  be  three  distinct 
theories  of  History,  or  three  methods  of  building 
up  a  Philosophy  of  History ;  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  some  authors  have  given  great  prominence 
to  the  laws  that  originate  from  the  first  source 
named,  some  to  those  which  originate  from  the 
second,  and  others  to  those  which  originate  from 
the  third,  and  may  thus  be  divided  into  three  classes. 
The  theories  resulting  from  this  disposition  of  the 
subject,  may  be  termed,  respectively,  the  Material 
istic,  the  Spiritualistic,  and  the  Theistic,  Theories. 
Some  inquiries  will  be  made  concerning  each  in  turn, 

1.  THE  MATERIALISTIC  THEORY.  —  The  advocates 
of  the  Materialistic  Theory  hold  that  all  LumaD 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  429 

conduct  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  influences 
imposed  upon  the  race  by  material  agencies ;  that 
Free  Will  is  a  fiction ;  that  God's  Providence  is  a 
myth ;  that  the  human  mind  may  act  according  to 
its  own  nature,  but  that  its  acts  in  all  cases  proceed 
from  causes  like  those  which  govern  matter.  His 
tory  judged  by  this  theory  is  simply  an  Empirical 
Science,  built  up  in  accordance  with  the  Inductive 
method.  No  self-originated  principles  are  admitted. 
All  causes  uncaused  are  denied.  Events  march  on, 
first  as  antecedents,  then  as  consequents,  uncon 
trolled  either  by  man  or  God.  Facts  are  collected, 
classifications  formed,  generalizations  made,  and 
scientific  anticipations  indulged  in,  with  as  little 
hesitation  as  in  any  other  of  nature's  fields  open  for 
exploration,  and  with  as  much  confidence  seemingly 
in  the  applicability  of  the  method  made  use  of. 
Mim  is  regarded  as  but  a  link  in  the  endless  chain 
of  being ;  and,  like  any  other  link,  fast  in  his  place 
— each  thought,  each  feeling,  each  volition,  each  act, 
necessitated  by  laws  beyond  his  control.  Human 
actions  are  accounted  for  in  the  same  way  as  the 
fall  hi;*  of  an  apple,  the  growth  of  a  plant,  or  the 
build  .ng  of  a  beaver's  dam.  If  God  did  create  all 
things  in  the  beginning,  His  hand  is  nowhere  now 
apparent  in  the  working  world.  If  man  was  at  first 
BO  made  that  he  could  choose  between  good  and 
evil,  we  have  now  no  evidence  that  he  exercises  of 
himself  such  a  choice. 

The  best  representative  of  the  class  of  Historians 
who  have  adopted  this  theory,  is  Heniy  Thomas 
Buckle ;  and,  that  the  reader  may  see  for  himself 
what  they  are,  I  will  present  some  of  his  leading 


430     INSTRUCTION   IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

principles.  1st.  The  actions  of  men  are  caused  by 
their  antecedents.  2d.  These  antecedents  exist 
either  in  the  human  mind  or  in  nature.  3d.  Those 
which  are  found  in  the  human  mind  do  not  result 
from  free-will,  or  from  Providential  interposition. 
4th.  The  consciousness  by  which  it  is  said  we  know 
that  the  will  is  free,  is  extremely  fallible.  5th.  It  is 
gratuitous  to  assert  that  there  is  anything  Provi 
dential  in  History.  6th.  That  History  is  the  modifi 
cation  of  man  by  nature,  and  nature  by  man. 

With  respect  to  the  last  proposition,  it  is  hard  to 
see  how  man  can  modify  nature  if  he  himself  is 
bound  by  laws  over  which  he  has  no  control,  unless 
it  be  in  the  same  sense  as  a  growth  of  trees,  a  school 
of  fish,  or  a  herd  of  buffalo  modifies  nature,  or  one 
part  of  nature  modifies  some  other  part.  Allow 
man  will  in  liberty  and  admit  a  Superintending 
Providence,  and  the  problem  of  History  might  be 
expressed  thus :  History  is  the  modification  of  man 
by  nature,  nature  by  man,  and  both  by  God.  The 
incomplete  notion  of  the  problem  of  History  enter 
tained  by  Buckle  is  pointed  out  in  this  amended 
proposition  ;  what  are  considered  his  fundamental 
errors  will  be  pointed  out  as  this  discussion  proceeds, 
but  the  great  fact,  that  nature  modifies  man,  which 
he  so  ably  presents,  and  so  richly  exemplifies,  must 
now  be  recognized. 

Bossuet  says:  "And,  as  in  all  concerns  thf re  is 
that  which  prepares  for  them,  that  which  determines 
their  occurrence,  and  that  which  causes  them  to 
succeed,  the  true  science  of  History  is  to  observe 
the  latent  tendencies  which  have  prepared  great 
changes,  and  the  important  conjunctures  which  have 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  431 

brought  them  into  fact."  When  closely  examined, 
it  will  be  found  that  nature  has  given  rise  to  many 
of  these  "  latent  tendencies  which  have  prepared 
great  changes,"  and  produced  many  of  these  "  im 
portant  conjunctures  which  have  brought  them  into 
fact."  The  influences  of  nature  upon  man  must 
therefore  engage  the  earnest  attention  of  one  who 
desires  to  investigate  the  subtle  laws  that  go  to  make 
up  the  Philosophy  of  History.  Among  the  agencies 
most  potent  in  their  effects  upon  man,  as  mentioned 
by  Buckle,  are  climate,  food,  soil,  and  the  general 
aspects  of  nature.  Others,  as  air,  light,  electricity, 
might  be  added  ;  but,  perhaps,  the  term  climate, 
used  in  a  very  general  sense,  may  embrace  them. 
These  agencies  must  have  caused,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  differences  that  now  characterize  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth:  differences  in  size,  form,  features, 
color ;  differences  in  temperament  and  taste,  in  cus 
toms  and  habits,  in  manners  and  morals,  in  science 
and  art,  in  religion.  They  must  have  done  much 
to  prompt  emigrations  and  direct  them,  to  determine 
the  boundaries  of  nations,  to  control  the  employ 
ments  of  the  people,  to  point  out  the  locations  of 
cities,  to  fix  governmental  institutions,  to  bring 
about  revolutions,  to  incite  conquests,  to  foment 
wars,  to  secure  peace,  and  to  give  character  to  all 
that  belongs  to  human  civilization.  No  one  at  all 
acquainted  with  the  present  or  past  condition  of  the 
race,  can  be  at  a  loss  to  find  abundant  instances 
illustrative  of  these  effects. 

Buckle  infers  from  the  regularity  which  is  found 
to  prevail  even  with  respect  to  the  actions  of  men 
whicc  would  seem  least  likely  to  be  regular  in  their 


432      INSTRUCTION    IN   HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

occurrence,  that  these  actions  "  are  governed  by  the 
etate  of  society  in  which  they  occur."  Statistics 
prove  that  nearly  the  same  number  of  murders 
take  place  every  year,  and  that  they  are  committed 
in  nearly  the  same  way ;  that  there  are  about  as  many 
suicides  one  year  as  another,  and  that  about  as  many 
use  the  same  instrument  for  the  purpose  of  self- 
destruction  ;  that  the  number  of  marriages  annually 
contracted  "is  determined,  not  by  the  temper  and 
wishes  of  the  individuals,  but  by  large  general  facts, 
over  which  individuals  exercise  no  control ;"  that 
even  the  letters  dropped  into  a  Post-Office  without 
superscriptions  one  year,  about  equals  those  simi 
larly  neglected  other  years.  Facts  like  these  do 
show  in  a  surprising  manner  the  influence  upon 
man  of  causes  existing  without  him  —  causes  that 
can  be  ascertained  only  by  investigating  the  facts. 
Nature  modifies  man,  and  no  correct  solution  of  the 
problem  of  History  is  possible  wherein  its  influ 
ences  are  not  allowed  for;  but  the  gravest  errors 
have  arisen  frot*i  ascribing  to  these  influences  effects 
that  other  caure»  have  produced.  For  example,  to 
conclude  that  bemuse  certain  actions  of  men  occur 
with  a  £ood  decree  of  uniformity  in  the  same  age 
and  nailon,  that  men  never  act  from  their  own 
accord  ad  free  agents,  is  to  draw  a  conclusion  that 
the  facts  will  by  no  means  warrant.  If  some  of 
our  actions  are  regular,  many  more  are  irregular. 
Each  individual  does  things  every  day  of  his  life 
unlike  others  do  them.  New  thoughts,  new  inven 
tions,  new  discoveries  in  science  and  new  works  of 
art  appear,  and  moral  and  religious  duties  are  dis 
charged  —  all  as  the  products  of  a  self-originating 


THE   PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  433 

spirit.  Men  are  all  the  time  making  choices,  each 
unlike  the  choices  of  other  men ;  but,  in  view  of 
this,  because  the  sum  of  the  particular  choices 
during  one  year  may  about  equal  the  sum  of  the 
particular  choices  for  another  year  —  though  the 
same  persons  may  not  do  the  choosing  —  are  we  to 
conclude  that  no  man  makes  his  choice  freely  ?  If 
men  are  free  to  act,  does  it  follow  that  many  will 
not  act  in  the  same  way  ?  If  all  are  necessitated 
alike  in  their  actions  by  causes  existing  without 
them,  why  do  not  all  perform  like  actions?  It 
decides  nothing  against  the  doctrine  of  free  agency 
to  show  that  in  the  great  aggregate  of  human  ac 
tions,  men's  choices — their  likes  and  dislikes,  their 
similarities  and  diversities— are  uniform  while  their 
actions  as  individuals  greatly  differ ;  for  this  is  just 
what  would  happen  in  the  case  of  like  beings  who 
act  partly  from  causes  within  themselves  and  partly 
from  causes  without  themselves,  but  is  wholly  inex 
plicable  upon  the  ground  that  all  human  actions  are 
constrained  by  fixed  laws.  Social  statistics  may  in 
dicate  the  operation  of  general  laws  working  inde 
pendently  of  the  human  will ;  but  all  this,  when 
well  understood,  is  entirely  compatible  with  indi 
vidual  freedom. 

It  is  a  legitimate  mode  of  inquiry  for  the  Historian 
to  study  the  existing  state  of  society  in  any  or  in 
all  countries,  to  compare  it  with  past  states  of 
society,  and  then  to  generalize  into  laws  the  uni- 
iormities,  or  correlations,  which  may  be  found  to 
prevail.  By  such  investigations  it  has  been  ascer 
tained  that  as  society  advances  men  are  distinguished 
more  by  mental  and  less  by  bodily  qualities ;  that 

37 


134:      INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

military  occupations  precede  industrial ;  thaf  men 
first  are  disposed  to  explain  phenomena  by  superna 
tural  agencies,  next  by  metaphysical  abstractions, 
and  finally  by  observing  the  laws  that  govern  them; 
that  forms  of  government,  modes  of  worship,  the 
state  of  education  and  the  arts,  correlate  with  the 
condition  of  the  cotemporaneous  civilization.  These 
and  other  such  laws  have  been  stated  and  expounded 
by  the  illustrious  French  Philosopher,  M.  Comte,  and 
his  followers.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  all  these 
laws  are  simply  the  generalizations  of  eiFects,  and 
constitute  at  the  best  but  a  body  of  Empirical 
truths.  How  can  we  account  for  the  uniformities 
and  correlations  that  are  thus  generalized  ?  Thia 
is  the  great  problem  of  the  Philosophy  of  History, 
Materialists  think  they  can  do  so  by  estimating  the 
influences  of  circumstances,  matter  and  mind  acting 
as  natural  causes;  but  while  they  succeed  in  ex 
pounding  one  of  its  elements  they  entirely  fail  as 
we  have  seen  in  solving  the  main  problem. 

2.  THE  SPIRITUALISTIC  THEORY.  —  It  has  been 
amply  shown  that  men  may  be  moved  to  act  by  the 
circumstances  which  surround  them.  No  one  seems 
to  doubt  that  conditioned  motives  to  action  such  as 
instincts  and  appetites,  originate  in  his  own  naturo. 
But  the  advocates  of  the  Spiritualistic  Theory  of 
the  Philosophy  of  History  maintain  that  man  was 
created  with  the  power  of  choosing  good  or  evil, 
that  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  will  is  free,  and 
though  it  may  never  act  without  a  reason,  it  always 
acts  with  an  open  alternative.  If  motives  to  action 
can  originate  spontaneously  in  man's  spiritual  ua- 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  485 

ture,  a  full  recognition  of  the  fact  will  introduce  a 
potent  element  into  the  Philosophy  of  History 
which  has  no  place  in  a  Natural  Philosophy. 

It  is  not  proper  here  to  enter  upon  a  lengthy 
argument  in  favor  of  the  doctrine  that  the  Will 
finds  motives  within  the  spiritual  nature  which 
prompt  it  to  act  in  contravention  of  all  animal 
influences  from  within  or  physical  influences  from 
without,  that  it  may  reject  all  meaner  influences 
and  act  solely  with  reference  to  absolute  ends  such 
as  beauty,  truth,  and  right,  which  are  intuitions  of 
the  Reason,  and  cannot  be  derived  from  experience. 
Happily,  however,  little  argument  is  needed,  for 
the  universal  human  consciousness  affirms  that  the 
Will  is  free  in  the  sense  we  have  defined  it  to  be  so; 
men  are  everywhere  held  to  be  responsible  for  their 
conduct,  and  experience,  legislation,  language,  all 
bear  witness  to  this  freedom. 

But  our  consciousness  is  extremely  fallible,  asserts 
Buckle.  Men  believe  one  thing  at  one  time,  and 
the  opposite  at  another.  We  are  conscious  at  times 
of  the  existence  of  spectres  and  phantoms.  This 
objection  to  the  validity  of  consciousness  arises  from 
a  mistaken  view  of  its  office.  Consciousness  merely 
reveals  what  exists  or  takes  place  in  the  mind.  If 
I  entertain  one  opinion  to-day,  and  another  to-mor 
row,  my  consciousness  remains  the  same,  assuring 
me  that  I  entertained  a  certain  opinion  and  changed 
it.  The  change  of  opinion  takes  place  in  the  intel 
lect.  The  outer  senses  deceive  us  in  regard  to 
spectres  and  phantoms,  not  the  consciousness,  which 
only  informs  us  as  to  what  impressions  are  made 
upon  these  senses.  Indeed,  we  know  that  we  see  or 


INSTRUCTION   IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

hear  things  only  by  being  conscious  of  the  seeing 
or  hearing;  for  all  we  know  of  anything  we  are 
dependent  upon  the  consciousness,  and,  if  the  con 
sciousness  cannot  be  relied  upon,  the  foundation  of 
all  knowledge  gives  way,  and  we  have  nothing  but 
chaos.  The  consciousness,  then,  which  reveals 
what  takes  place  in  the  mind,  enables  us  to  know 
that  there  is  a  power  within  us  which  originates 
ends  that  no  experience  can  account  for,  nor  any 
logic  discover,  and  that  these  ends  may  be  freely 
chosen  as  against  all  other  ends,  come  from  whence 
they  may.  It  is  only  by  choosing  the  pure  and 
noble  ends  furnished  by  the  Reason  that  man  lifts 
himself  above  the  world  of  sense  and  expediency, 
and  realizes  that  higher  life  —  that  true  liberty,  for 
which  he  was  destined. 

The  abstract  idea  of  History  is  that  of  a  develop 
ment.  Plants  and  animals  come  into  being  and 
mature  by  an  unfolding  process,  and  analogy  would 
lead  us  to  presume  the  same  of  man.  We  know 
enough  of  History  to  say  that  its  facts  are  connected 
together  organically,  that  they  are  a  growth  not  an 
aggregation ;  and  this  indicates,  if  it  does  not  prove, 
their  systematic  evolution.  Nothing  moves  unless 
set  in  motion,  so  development  cannot  begin  without 
the  application  of  power.  Whence  this  power? 
Primarily,  from  the  Creator ;  but  man  was  created 
in  toe  image  of  his  Maker,  and  hence  he  too  is  a 
source  of  power,  and  the  Historic  development  of 
his  actions  is  modified  by,  if  not  mainly  based  upon, 
his  own  native  forces.  Unlike  the  plant  or  the 
animal,  man  can  find  a  reason  for  many  of  his 
actions  within  himself:  he  may  choose  evil,  and  a 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  437 

growth  of  evil  actions  will  be  the  result;  he  may 
choose  good,  and  his  life  will  yield  abundant  har 
vests  of  rich  fruit.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  did 
choose  evil,  fell,  and  the  consequent  disasters  have 
weighed  heavily  upon  the  world;  but  he  ma}-  accept 
the  sacrifice  made  for  sinners,  rise  again,  and  in  a 
life  of  purity,  fulfill  the  design  of  his  creation.  The 
growth  of  our  animal  nature  is  a  development,  but 
the  conditions  are  all  imposed  from  without;  the 
perfection  of  the  spiritual  nature  is  a  development 
but  one  of  a  wholly  different  kind,  and  arises  from 
the  realization  in  life,  of  the  ideal  conceptions  of 
beauty,  truth  and  holiness,  which  can  only  be  in 
spired  from  within.  From  the  antagonism  of  these 
two  natures  —  antagonistic  only  on  account  of  the 
disturbing  element  of  sin  —  comes  the  warfare  be 
tween  the  flesh  and  the  spirit,  which  is  to  be  over 
come  at  last  by  the  reconciliation  of  man  to  God. 
There  is  nothing  in  this  view  \vhich  does  not  harmo 
nize  with  the  idea  of  development.  Our  acts  may  be 
evolved  partly  from  the  animal  and  partly  from  the 
spiritual  nature,  may  be  partly  good  and  partly  evil, 
without  necessitating  the  disruption  of  their  organic 
unity.  The  same  stream  in  one  part  of  its  course 
may  have  its  waters  wild,  turbid,  and  foul;  while 
further  on,  they  may  become  calm,  and  the  sediment 
that  rendered  them  impure  sinking  to  the  bottom, 
may  leave  them  clear  and  pure.  To  one,  therefore, 
who  can  take  in  the  vast  sweep  of  the  Creator's 
plan,  there  can  be  no  conflicting  potentialities,  and 
no  valid  argument  can  be  brought  against  the  theory 
that  allows  Free  Agency  to  man  from  this  source. 
It  does  not  follow  because  man  originates  an  end 

37* 


438      INSTBCJCTIOtf   IN   HISTOKICAL    SCIENCES. 

in  his  own  Reason  with  reference  to  which  he  acts, 
that  a  Science  of  History  is  impossible.  Quite 
otherwise,  unless  he  acts  in  view  of  such  an  end, 
there  can  be  no  true  science  of  anything.  Besides, 
each  individual  life  in  the  unity  of  its  several  stages, 
exemplifies  the  life  of  the  race,  and  self-reflection 
will  enable  one  to  solve  some  of  the  most  profound 
problems  in  History ;  and  no  man  who  reflects  about 
himself  has  ever  failed  to  acknowledge  his  responsi 
bility  for  his  acts  —  a  fact  totally  irreconcilable  with 
the  doctrine  of  Necessity. 

Unless  a  spontaneous  cause  be  found  in  the  human 
mind,  it  seems  impossible  to  account  for  the  influ 
ence  upon  society  exerted  by  belief  and  thought. 
Says  Mill :  "  Every  considerable  advance  in  material 
civilization  has  been  preceded  by  an  advance  in 
knowledge ;  and  when  any  great  social  change  has 
come  to  pass,  a  great  change  in  the  opinions  and 
modes  of  thinking  of  society  had  taken  place.  Poly 
theism,  Judaism,  Christianity,  Protestantism,  the 
negative  philosophy  of  modern  Europe,  and  its  posi 
tive  science— each  of  these  has  been  a  primary  agent 
in  making  society  what  it  was  at  each  successive 
period,  while  society  was  but  secondarily  instru 
mental  in  making  them,  each  of  them  (so  far  as 
causes  can  be  assigned  for  its  existence)  being  mainly 
an  emanation,  not  from  the  practical  life  of  the 
period,  but  from  the  state  of  belief  and  thought 
during  sometime  previous."  Can  it  be  supposed 
that  "belief  and  thought"  from  which  come  such 
results  are  attributable  to  the  ordinary  operation  of 
physical  causes  upon  mind?  Can  man  move  only 
with  the  wheel  of  nature?  Did  God  make  thu 


THE    PHILOSOPHY   OF    HISTORY.  439 

world  and  then  withdraw  forever  His  creating  nand  ? 
All  we  know  of  social  phenomena  seem  to  me  to 
furnish  a  negative  response. 

The  Philosophy  of  History  has  been  more  care 
fully  studied  in  Germany  than  in  any  other  country, 
and  as  the  subject  is  one  of  the  most  vital  impor 
tance,  I  will  present  the  opinions  of  a  few  of  the 
greatest  German  thinkers  in  illustration  of  the  views 
here  taken. 

Kant  says :  "  Reason  is  the  faculty  which  furnishes 
the  principles  of  cognition  a  priori."  If  principles 
are  furnished  at  all  by  the  reason,  it  is  evident  that 
these  principles  may  become  objects  of  desire  — 
ends  of  action,  and  thus  move  the  will  so  to  act  that 
the  conduct  may  be  in  conformity  thereto.  And, 
after  all,  the  freedom  of  the  will  must  be  determined 
by  determining  the  sources  of  knowledge.  It  is  well 
ascertained  that  for  every  act  of  Knowing  there  may 
be  an  act  of  Feeling,  and  consequently  an  act  of 
Willing.  We  know  through  the  senses,  and  of 
course  our  conduct  is  influenced  by  the  world  of 
sense ;  but  if  the  mind  has  power  to  cognize  princi 
ples  evolved  from  itself — and  we  have  previously 
shown  that  it  has  this  power — then,  may  the  con 
duct  be  influenced  by  these  principles,  and  man 
either  is  or  may  become  a  Free  Agent.  Had  Kant 
written  a  Philosophy  of  History,  he  would  not  have 
overlooked  the  effects  attributable  to  the  autonomic 
potency  of  the  human  spirit. 

Fichte's  system  consists  of  a  Theoretical  and  a 
Practical  division.  The  fundamental  axiom  of  his 
Practical  division  is,  "  That  the  not-me  is  affirmed 
us  determined  by  the  me."  This  proposition,  whether 


4-iO     INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

true  or  false,  indicates  to  those  who  understand  it^ 
with  sufficient  clearness,  the  author's  opinions  in 
regard  to  the  Historic  element  now  under  discus 
sion.  But  his  views  are  further  expressed  by  Morell 
as  follows :  "  The  mind  has  a  purely  rational  nature, 
by  virtue  of  which  it  sets  before  itself  its  own  aim, 
the  object  of  its  own  free  activity.  To  deny  this 
would  be  to  deny  the  very  existence  of  mind  itself: 
to  ask  why  it  is  so,  would  be  to  ask  why  truth  is 
truth."  Fichte's  "Idea  of  Universal  History"  is 
that  of  a  free  spirit  struggling  to  surmount  obsta 
cles  of  its  own  creation,  "  seeking  to  bring  into 
actual  existence  all  that  lies  potentially  in  its  con 
sciousness."  This  constitutes  his  "world-plan"  and 
designates  his  place  among  writers  on  the  Philoso 
phy  of  History. 

Schelling  maintains  the  existence  of  a  faculty 
which  intuitively  discovers  the  Absolute.  A  mind 
possessing  such  a  faculty  must  be  in  some  sense  free 
in  its  actions.  But  we  are  not  left  to  inference  in 
regard  to  Schelling's  views  of  History.  Morell 
states  them  as  follows :  "  History  is  the  absolute 
combination  of  the  freedom  of  the  individual  with 
the  necessary  development  of  the  race.  Every  act 
of  which  History  is  composed  is  a  free  act ;  and  yet 
man,  with  all  his  freedom,  cannot  help  contributing 
to  the  accomplishment  of  the  destiny  of  the  whole 
nation  and  whole  race  to  which  he  belongs." 

Hegel  starts  out  with  the  astounding  proposition 
that  Sein  —  Niclits,  or  that  Being  equals  Nothing ;  and 
derives  the  idea  of  existence  from  the  combination 
or  contradiction  of  Being  and  Nothing.  From  this 
point  he  proceeds  to  expound  in  a  series  of  logical 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  441 

triads  the  origin  and  laws  of  matter,  the  life  of  man, 
and  the  process  by  which  God  himself  is  realized — 
this  last  process  in  his  Philosophy  including  the 
first  two  processes,  or  in  other  words  all  the  on 
goings  of  nature  and  all  the  thoughts  and  actions 
of  men  are  but  the  unfolding  of  God.  Hegel  ad 
mitted  no  Creator.  From  nothing  he  developed 
existence,  and  then  started  a  movement  which  in 
turn  unfolded  from  it,  logic,  nature,  mind,  and  God 
as  a  Divine  personality.  After  assuming  a  series 
of  conditions  and  annulling  them,  the  Divine  Spirit 
seems  to  attain  freedom,  in  the  freedom  attained  by 
men;  but  with  Hegel  there  can  be  no  such  thing 
as  individual  Free  Agency.  Buckle  binds  mankind 
with  the  laws  of  matter,  Hegel  fetters  him  with  the 
laws  of  thought.  Buckle  might  admit  a  great  First 
Cause,  simply  as  an  abstraction,  while  Hegel  thinks 
he  finds  God  only  as  the  final  product  of  all  causation. 
The  Philosophy  of  the  former  tends  toward  Atheism, 
and  that  of  the  latter  is  unadulterated  Pantheism. 

Schlegel's  "  Philosophy  of  History"  was  written 
at  about  the  same  time  that  Hegel  delivered  his 
"  Lectures  on  History,"  and  yet  there  is  a  wide 
difference  in  the  doctrines  of  the  two  philosophers. 
Schlegel  looks  upon  the  freedom  of  man  and  the 
Providence  of  God  as  the  two  principal  Historic 
elements.  He  writes,  " Without  this  freedom  of 
choice,  innate  in  man  or  imparted  to  him — this 
faculty  of  determining  between  the  divine  impulse 
and  the  suggestions  of  the  spirit  of  evil — there  would 
be  no  History,  and  without  a  faith  in  such  a  prin 
ciple  there  could  be  no  Philosophy  of  History." 
And  again,  "Without  the  idea  of  a  God-head  regu- 


4.42      INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

lating  the  course  of  human  destiny,  of  an  all-ruling 
Providence,  and  the  saving  and  redeeming  power  of 
God,  the  History  of  the  world  would  be  a  labyrinth 
without  an  outlet  —  a  confused  pile  of  ages  buried 
upon  ages  —  a  mighty  tragedy  without  a  right  be 
ginning,  or  a  proper  ending." 

3.  THE  THEISTIC  THEORY.  —  The  Theistic  Theo*y 
recognizes  God  as  the  Creator  of  all  things,  and 
holds  that  He  imposed  and  continues  to  impose 
certain  conditions  upon  both  nature  and  man,  and 
that  these  must  be  taken  into  the  account  in  philo 
sophizing  about  History. 

It  is  impossible  to  think  that  the  creation  did  not 
begin  to  be — even  Hegel's  dialectic  movement  must 
start — and  if  so,  it  must  have  had  an  Author.  Mo 
dern  science  has  shown  that  new  kinds  of  plants 
and  new  races  of  animals  have  been  at  various 
epochs  introduced  into  the  world,  and  if  so,  there 
is  no  alternative  but  to  regard  such  facts  as  the 
result  of  the  direct  interposition  of  the  same  Power 
that  originally  called  the  earth  itself  into  existence. 

God  evinces  his  power  in  History.  Nations  rise 
and  fall.  Whole  races  disappear  and  new  men 
spring  as  it  were  from  the  ground  to  take  their 
places.  Great  multitudes  of  people  are  moved  by 
a  common  impulse,  for  wrhich  no  one  can  account, 
to  emigrate,  to  reform,  to  become  religious.  Inven 
tions  and  discoveries  are  made  just  when  most 
wanted.  Genius  gives  birth  to  science  and  art. 
Great  men  seem  born  for  the  times  in  which  they 
live.  Crises  occur  in  human  affairs,  and  when 
all  men  despair,  help  comes,  whence  no  one  can 


THE   PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  443 

U*i-  These  events  and  such  as  these,  though  to 
some  extent  the  result  of  the  potency  of  nature  or 
the  potency  of  will,  indicate  that  the  God  who 
made  the  world  still  rules  it.  Without  the  idea  of 
God  regulating  the  affairs  of  men,  History  would 
be  a  grand  chaos  of  disconnected  facts  and  discor 
dant  elements,  us  already  quoted,  a  "Confused  pile 
of  ages  buried  upon  ages." 

As  individuals,  nearly  all  persons  acknowledge 
the  Providence  of  God.  The  common  instincts  of 
mankind  all  point  in  this  direction.  The  lowest 
grade  of  savages  entertain  it  in  some  form  or  other, 
cultivated  Heathen  nations  admit  it,  and  Christians 
everywhere  hold  that  God  ofttimes  strengthens  them 
in  the  performance  of  good,  and  ofttimes  speaks 
comfort  to  the  sorrowing  spirit.  If  these  instances 
were  few,  distant,  or  isolated,  no  general  conclusion 
should  be  drawn  from  them ;  but  in  all  ages,  in  all 
climes,  and  among  all  people,  the  common  belief 
has  been  that  the  hand  of  God  is  frequently  appa 
rent  in  the  affairs  of  men,  and  it  is  a  monstrous 
libel  upon  human  nature  to  deny  it.  To  me  the 
same  consciousness  that  reveals  the  idea  of  God, 
reveals  Him  as  the  Maker,  Preserver,  and  Ruler 
of  the  universe ;  and  I  hold  both  revelations  alike 
valid. 

I  have  not  yet  referred  to  the  Bible,  nor  need  L 
Those  who  believe  it  to  be  true,  have  already  real 
ized  its  effect  upon  mankind ;  and  those  who  dis 
believe  it,  would  not  be  persuaded  by  arguments 
based  upon  it.  Some  good  Christians,  however, 
think  that,  with  Christ  and  his  immediate  Disciples, 
God  ceased  to  manifest  himself  by  Special  Provi 


444     INSTRUCTION    IN    HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

dences ;  to  them  it  might  be  said  that  the  operations 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  must  continue  to  he  a  special  in 
terposition  of  God,  and  the  conversion  of  every 
sinner  is  a  miracle.  No  man  ever  yet  lifted  himself 
up  from  sin  and  death,  to  purity  and  life.  God  must 
aid  him  in  this  work,  and  all  such  help  is  a  Special 
Providence. 

Much  in  History  is  Providential.  Evidence  of  it 
comes  from  the  creation,  from  the  economy  of  na 
ture,  from  the  great  events  of  the  past,  from  indi 
vidual  experience,  and  from  the  Bible.  All  may 
have  entered  into  the  grand  plan  when  first  the 
creation  was  conceived,  and  may  occur  in  accord 
ance  with  that  plan ;  but  the  plan  itself  may  have 
embraced  eras  which  God  predetermined  for  his 
own  glory  or  our  good  to  distinguish  by  extraordi 
nary  manifestations  of  His  presence  or  His  power, 
or  may  have  contemplated  events  which  were  to 
be  specially  guided  by  His  omnipotent  hand. 

God's  dealings  with  men  cover  three  distinctly 
marked  periods :  first,  that  of  Purity,  before  the 
Fall ;  second,  that  of  Promise,  from  the  Fall  to 
the  coming  of  Christ;  third,  that  of  Fulfilment, 
after  the  Resurrection.  From  both  the  nature  and 
facts  of  the  case,  all  these  dealings  resolve  them 
selves  into  one  grand  plan  for  the  protection  of  man 
from  evil  before  the  Fall,  and  for  his  restoration  to 
holiness  after  it.  This  plan  was  undoubtedly  made 
in  view  of  man's  Free  Agency,  and  of  physical  in 
fluences,  and,  when  well  understood,  harmonizes 
with  them.  Physical  influences,  indeed,  must 
operate  in  entire  subserviency  to  intellectual  and 
moral  influences  —  to  the  laws  imposed  upon  them 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY.  445 

in  the  beginning;  and  if  a  man  may  be  able  to 
attain  virtue  and  yet  be  unwilling  to  make  the  effort, 
and  God  in  pity  present  a  stronger  motive  and  thud 
aid  him  in  making  a  right  choice,  and  save  him  from 
destruction,  does  that  conflict  with  Free  Agency  ? 
It  does  not,  for  it  leaves  an  open  alternative ;  and 
yet  this  is  the  simple  mode  in  which  God  strives  to 
save  a  lost  world. 

It  remains  only  to  say  that  Bossuet  was  the  first 
to  apply  the  idea  of  an  overruling  Providence  in  the 
solution  of  the  Problem  of  History.  He  did  it 
ably  and  eloquently.  Schlegel's  "  Philosophy  of 
History"  is  the  most  profound  work  written  from  a 
similar  standpoint.  Nearly  all  the  German  writers 
on  the  subject  recognize  God  in  History;  but  most 
of  them  seem  to  think  that  the  Philosophy  of 
History  has  other  objects  than  that  which  Schlegel 
claims  to  be  the  chief  one,  "  To  point  out  histo 
rically,  in  reference  to  the  whole  human  race,  and 
in  outward  conduct  and  experience  of  life,  the  pro 
gress  of  the  restoration  in  man  of  the  lost  image 
of  God,  in  the  various  periods  of  the  world." 

Admit  the  theory  now  stated,  and  does  it  take 
away  all  foundation  for  a  science  of  History?  Must 
the  world  be  a  chaos  because  God  rules  it  ?  By  no 
means.  God  works  in  the  light  of  absolute  truth. 
The  whole  plan  of  the  creation  and  the  moral 
government  of  the  world  is  consistent.  The  super 
natural,  no  less  than  the  natural,  is  subject  to  laws, 
but  we  can  only  catch  glimpses  of  them.  It  is  the 
fool  that  has  said  in  his  heart  "there  is  no  God." 

Sufficient  has  now  been  said  to  render  the  truth 

se 


446     INSTRUCTION   IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

apparent  that  History  results  from  the  operation  of 
three  great  causes :  nature,  man's  Free  "Will,  and 
God's  Providence.  These  are  the  Historic  factors. 
He  who  would  construct  a  complete  Philosophy  of 
History  must  answer  the  following  questions :  What 
is  the  amount  of  influence  nature  exerts  upon  man  ? 
"What  is  the  amount  of  influence  his  own  spiritual 
freedom  exerts  upon  man  ?  "What  is  the  amount 
of  influence  God  exerts  upon  man  ?  If  he  can  fix 
the  relative  proportions  of  these  influences  in  the 
events  of  History  and  harmonize  them,  his  work 
is  done  As  History  may  be  considered  from  these 
several  standpoints,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
there  have  been  propounded  different  Theories  of 
the  Philosophy  of  History.  Each  writer  has  some 
truth  at  the  bottom  of  his  system,  but  the  whole  of 
truth  ascertained  can  only  be  known  by  a  combina 
tion  of  the  truths  of  all  systems.  The  facts  pro 
bably  are  that  in  the  infancy  of  the  race,  physical 
causes  had  more  influence  upon  man  than  when  he 
advanced  to  higher  stages  of  civilization,  and  God 
also  presented  himself  in  a  more  tangible  form  — 
walking  and  talking  with  men.  But  when  nations 
emerged  from  ignorance,  and  reason  mounted  her 
throne  and  assumed  her  destined  sway,  nature  suc- 
combed  to  a  superior  power,  and  God  no  longer 
reveals  himself  to  the  coarser  senses,  but  only  to 
the  pure  eye  of  faith. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  apply  the  Theory  of  the 
Philosophy  of  History  now  arrived  at  to  the  Facts 
of  History.  If  it  were  necessary  to  do  so  in  order 
to  exhibit  the  nature  of  the  Theory  now  developed, 


THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY  4-17 

it  would  not  be  very  difficult  to  show  that  the  three 
great  Historic  factors  have  each  played  an  important 
part  in  the  production  of  events  like  the  downfall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  the  Crusades,  the  Reformation, 
the  French  Revolution,  or  the  American  Rebellion. 
I  will  only  add  that  all  the  Facts  of  History  to  be 
understood,  must  be  interpreted  by  the  light  of  its 
Philosophy. 

Having  indicated  the  nature  of  the  Philosophy  of 
History,  a  few  sentences  will  suffice  to  indicate  the 
methods  of  teaching  it.  So  far  as  the  laws  of  His 
tory  can  be  inferred  from  observed  facts,  it  is  an 
Empirical  Science  and  must  be  taught  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  Inductive  Method.  To  the 
extent  that  it  is  dependent  upon  truths  derived 
a  priori,  it  is  a  Rational  Science  and  can  be  taught 
only  according  to  the  principles  of  the  Deductive 
Method.  When  the  designs  of  God's  Providential 
interpositions  cannot  be  determined,  they  must  be 
believed.  Thus  the  study  of  History  requires  the 
most  extensive  observation  of  facts,  the  broadest 
generalizations,  the  deepest  insight  into  truth,  the 
most  careful  demonstrations,  and  the  most  exalted 
faith.  Methods  applicable  to  all  other  studies,  are 
employed  in  a  higher  sense  in  this ;  and,  in  addition, 
we  are  constantly  reminded  that  human  science  has 
its  limits,  and  that  for  light  concerning  the  realm  of 
pure  truth  beyond  its  ken,  we  must  in  this  life  trust 
to  revelations  from  above. 

Let  me  conclude  by  indicating  the  great  lessons 
of  History.  Three  kinds  of  influence  make  up  our 


4:48        INSTRUCTION"    IN   HISTORICAL    SCIENCES. 

life;  that  irom  nature,  that  from  our  own  free 
spirits,  and  that  from  God.  In  their  deep  signifi 
cance,  they  teach  these  lessons :  CHARITY,  INDEPEN 
DENCE,  and  HUMILITY.  We  find  the  follies,  the  faults, 
the  wants  and  the  woes  of  mankind  much  owing  to 
nature  and  the  circumstances  of  society — this  excites 
our  sympathy,  and  is  designed  to  teach  us  Charity ; 
we  find  motives  within  us  which  prompt  us  to  act 
for  ourselves — this  is  designed  to  teach  us  Indepen 
dence;  God  in  many  ways  makes  us  sensible  of  His 
overruling  power  and  our  weakness — and  this  is 
designed  to  teach  us  Humility.  As  now  used, 
Charity  is  love  to  man ;  Independence  is  a  true 
sense  of  our  own  manhood ;  and  Humility  is  faithful 
obedience  to  God — equivalent  to  loving  our  neigh 
bors  as  ourselves,  respecting  ourselves,  and  honor 
ing  God. 

Our  charities  are  bestowed  in  proportion  to  the 
helplessness  of  the  recipient.  Our  toleration  for  the 
erroneous  opinions  of  others  is  in  proportion  to  their 
responsibility  for  them.  We  do  not  hold  the  Heathen 
strictly  accountable  for  the  violation  of  Christian 
principles,  nor  do  we  much  blame  the  people  of 
Constantinople  for  being  Mahometans.  If  we  could 
be  convinced  that  differences  of  opinion  in  regard 
to  politics,  philosophy,  morals,  religion,  were  wholly 
owing  to  differences  of  soil,  food,  climate,  the  general 
aspects  of  nature,  or  the  general  condition  of  society, 
strife  and  debate,  party-hate,  and  party-warfare 
would  mostly  cease,  and  the  nations  would  learn 
the  lesson  of  CHARITY. 

To  teach  this  lesson  in  this  way,  however,  would 
necessitate  the  total  annihilation  of  the  distinction 


THE   PHILOSOPHY    OF    HISTORY. 

of  right  and  wrong,  and  blot  out  forever  self-con 
sciousness  and  self-respect.  We  are  governed  b} 
circumstances  just  so  far  as  to  form  a  social  brother 
hood,  and  to  teach  wise  men  charity;  and  for  the  rest 
we  are  made  to  find  within  ourselves  the  reasons  for 
our  conduct,  and  to  feel  responsible  for  it.  Man, 
relying  upon  himself,  gathers  facts  from  earth,  and 
air,  and  heaven,  and  finds  the  laws  that  govern  them ; 
he  seizes  the  principles,  his  own  reason  furnishes  and 
constructs  systems  of  Philosophy;  he  produces  — 
almost  creates  forms  of  beauty  in  the  arts ;  he  estab 
lishes  governments,  and  when  they  fail  to  subserve 
his  ends,  he  alters  or  abolishes  them ;  he  casts  off 
the  shackles  of  despotism  and  slavery,  and  be 
comes  a  freeman ;  he  triumphs  over  his  passions 
and  rules  himself,  and  thus  he  learns  the  lesson  of 
INDEPENDENCE. 

But  with  this  Independence,  come  bigotry,  pride, 
obstinacy,  pertinacity,  dogmatism,  tyranny.  In 
their  foolish  reliance  upon  self,  men  become  self- 
righteous  like  the  Pharisees  of  old,  and  vainly  expect 
to  purchase  Heaven  with  merit  of  their  own.  They 
eat  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  and  would  be  gods. 
Then  God  stretches  forth  Ilis  hand,  and  flaming 
swords  guard  the  entrance  to  Paradise  which  man 
has  forfeited  by  disobedience ;  a  flood  cleanses  the 
earth  from  wickedness ;  fire  and  brimstone  rain 
down  upon  the  devoted  cities  of  the  plain  ;  Pharaoh's 
heart  is  hardened ;  thunders  burst  out  from  Sinai; 
prophets  whose  lips  had  been  touched  with  fire 
from  Heaven  warn  the  nations ;  pomp  and  power 
are  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found  wanting; 
men  are  afflicted,  and,  like  Job,  "  abhor  themselves, 


450        INSTRUCTION    IN    HISTORICAL   SCIENCES. 

and  repent  in  dust  and  ashes ;"  riches  take  to  them 
selves  wings  and  flyaway;  and  the  rebellious  are 
all  brought  down  in  heart,  and  cry  upon  the  Lord 
in  their  troubles.  In  the  fullness  of  time,  the  meek 
and  lowly  One  appears  and  calls,  "  Come  unto  me, 
all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy  laden,  and  I  will 
give  you  rest."  Multitudes  accept  the  call,  and 
enter  like  little  children  into  the  Heavenly  King 
dom  ;  and  thus  learn  the  lesson  of  HUMILITY. 

All  goes  to  show  that  Independence  ennobles 
Charity,  and  Humility  softens  Independence ;  and 
together  they  constitute  the  essentials  of  Manhood. 
"We  may  now  pluck  the  fruitage  of  all  History: 
PEACE  ON  EARTH,  LIBERTY  TO  MAN,  and  GLOBY  TO 
GOD. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

schools  should  impart  instruction  in  Waiting 
g,  and  Vocal  Music,  and  methods  of  teaching 
these  School- Arts  will  be  presented  here  in  some 
detail ;  after  which  a  few  general  observations  will 
be  made  concerning  Instruction  in  the  Arts  in  General. 
This  order  is  the  reverse  of  that  followed  in  the  pre 
ceding  Chapters,  and  places  the  particular  before  the 
general;  but  by  so  doing,  while  care  is  taken  that 
nothing  shall  be  lost  in  perspicuity,  something  will 
be  gained  in  symmetry  to  the  book  as  a  whole. 

I.  Writing. 

"Writing  is  the  art  of  making  letters  and  combining 
them  in  words.  The  instrument  used  for  this  pur 
pose  at  the  present  time  is  called  a  pen  or  pencil ; 
in  ancient  times  it  was  called  a  reed  or  style.  The 
characters  used  in  writing  and  printing  are  un 
doubtedly  modifications  of  the  same  forms. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  Writing  is  a 
useful  art.  It  seems  indispensable  in  transacting 
the  complicated  affairs  of  modern  society. 

In  learning  to  write,  two  objects  must  be  kept  in 
view :  first,  to  make  the  writing  legible ;  second,  to 
make  it  oeautiful.  Without  the  attainment  of  the 
first  object,  Writing  would  be  of  no  use,  and  with- 

(451; 


4:52  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

out  the  attainment  of  the   second  it  could   never 
gratify  the  taste. 

Writing  is  partly  a  mental,  and  partly  a  mechaii 
ical  operation.  As  a  mental  operation,  it  consists 
in  conceiving  the  forms  of  the  letters,  and,  as  a  me 
chanical  operation,  it  consists  in  executing  those 
forms.  It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  lessons  in 
Writing  are  divisible  into  two  classes :  those  which 
are  designed  to  teach  the  conception  of  the  forms  of 
the  letters,  and  those  which  are  designed  to  give 
culture  to  the  muscles  used  in  Writing. 

1.  LESSONS  DESIGNED  TO  TEACH  THE  CONCEPTION  OF 
THE  FORMS  OF  THE  LETTERS. — In  art,  the  ideal  pre 
cedes  the  real ;  the  conception  of  form  precedes  its 
execution.  Painters  place  their  mental  pictures 
upon  canvas,  sculptors  realize  them  in  marble,  and 
architects  express  them  in  wood  and  stone.  With 
an  imperfect  ideal,  its  realization  must  be  corres 
pondingly  imperfect.  All  this  applies  to  Writing  as 
to  other  arts,  and  a  teacher  of  Writing  should  have 
lessons  calculated  to  impress  upon  his  pupils'  minds 
the  most  correct  and  beautiful  forms  of  the  letters. 

Some  lessons  on  Form  in  general  may  be  made 
valuable  auxiliaries  to  this  end. 

Young  children  may  be  amused  and  instructed 
with  blocks  of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  out  of 
which  buildings  and  articles  of  furniture  may  be 
made  ;  blocks  cut  into  sections  which  can  be  formed 
into  various  figures ;  and  diagrams  and  blocks 
representing  the  figures  and  bodies  used  in  Mathe 
matics.  No  article  of  apparatus  can  be  used  more 
advantageously  in  giving  lessons  in  Form  than  the 


WRITING.  453 

/ 

Chinese  Puzzle.  It  consists  of  eight  pieces  pecu 
liarly  shaped.  The  pieces  may  be  so  arranged  as  to 
form  a  square,  a  triangle,  a  parallelogram,  and  hun 
dreds  of  other  figures.  A  book  accompanies  the 
pieces  containing  diagrams  of  the  figures  to  be 
formed,  but  not  indicating  the  positions  of  the 
pieces ;  and  the  problems  consist  in  having  certain 
figures  given,  to  find  the  position  of  the  pieces  in 
forming  them. 

Lessons  requiring  the  discrimination  of  the  forms 
of  natural  objects,  such  as  leaves,  crystals,  fruits, 
&c. ;  make  more  vivid  the  impressions  of  form. 

Some  teachers  have  placed  boxes  of  sand  before 
their  pupils  and  required  them  to  make  various 
figures  in  the  sand,  and  others  have  exercised  them 

o  ' 

in  tracing  figures  in  the  air  with  rods. 

The  experience  of  many  good  teachers  seems  to 
prove  that  pupils  should  receive  instruction  in  the 
elements  of  Drawing  before  they  begin  to  write,  and 
that  such  lessons  are  better  calculated  than  any 
others  to  aid  the  pupil  in  attaining  the  power  of 
conceiving  forms  correctly. 

To  impress  upon  the  minds  of  pupils  the  particular 
forms  used  in  Writing,  the  following  exercises  will 
be  found  valuable : 

The  letters  which  have  in  script  the  simplest  form, 
such  as  a,  ?i,  u,  should  first  be  presented  to  the 
pupils.  These  the  teacher  should  make  upon  the 
blackboard.  He  should  make  them  as  neatly  as  pos 
sible,  and  impress  their  correct  form  upon  the  minds 
of  the  class  by  exhibiting  the  common  departures 
from  it.  Each  lesson  should  include  but  a  few 
letters,  as  this  renders  the  discussion  of  their  pecu 


4:54:  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

liarities  and  the  manner  of  making  them  more  likely 
to  be  remembered. 

After  such  an  exercise  as  the  preceding,  the  work 
of  analyzing  the  letters  may  commence.  Pupils 
can  be  readily  led  to  see  that  the  right  line  or 
"  stroke"  /,  enters  as  an  element  into  a  number  of 
characters,  and  so  of  the  oval  0,  the  hook  ^,  the 
loop  /*,  &c. ;  and  they  will  therefore  take  more  inter 
est  in  imitating  them.  A  detailed  analysis  of  the 
letters  will  not  be  attempted  here ;  but  it  may  be 
found  upon  reference  to  works  on  Penmanship  that 
all  the  letters,  both  the  small  letters  andthe  capitals, 
can  be  reduced  to  a  very  few  simple  elements.  All 
that  it  is  necessary  to  say  now  is  that  these  elements 
must  be  exhibited  to  learners,  they  must  be  required 
to  imitate  them,  and  to  embody  them  in  letters  and 
words.  The  making  of  letters  and  words  should 
not  be  postponed  until  the  whole  analysis  of  the 
letters  has  been  completed  and  the  elements  care 
fully  practiced ;  but  as  soon  as  the  elements  com 
posing  a  letter,  or  the  letters  composing  a  word, 
have  been  mastered,  the  pupil  should  be  allowed 
to  write  them.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  one 
step  must  be  taken  at  a  time,  that  the  pupils  should 
commence  with  the  simplest  forms  and  become 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  these  before  advancing 
to  those  more  difficult,  and  that  a  correct  knowledge 
of  forms  must  precede  a  correct  execution  of  them. 

Kot  only  is  it  important  to  impress  upon  the 
learner  the  correct  forms  of  letters,  but  he  must 
also  be  taught  to  give  them  the  proper  inclination, 
and  arrange  correctly  the  distances  between  them. 
In  addition  to  the  directions  of  the  teacher  and  tha 


WRITING.  455 

model  for  imitation  which  the  learner  must  have 
constantly  before  him,  it  might  be  well  to  use  at 
first  a  copy-book  so  ruled  as  to  indicate  the  length 
of  the  letters,  their  inclination,  and  spacing. 

Some  teachers  have  found  much  advantage  in  re 
quiring  pupils  to  "  trace  the  letters."  This  tracing 
of  the  letters  consists  in  following  a  model  with  the 
pen  held  above  it  or  slightly  upon  it.  Drawing 
the  letters  on  slates  or  blackboards  is  an  excellent 
exercise. 

2.  LESSONS  DESIGNED  TO  GIVE  CULTURE  TO  THE 
MUSCLES  USED  IN  WRITING.  —  Certain  muscles  have 
to  be  trained  in  learning  to  sew,  paint,  play  the 
piano;  and  such  is  also  the  case  in  learning  to 
write.  No  one  can  make  a  more  beautiful  picture 
of  a  letter  than  that  which  he  has  in  his  mind ;  and 
he  requires  well  trained  muscles  who  can  expect 
to  make  any  close  approximation  to  it.  A  good 
writer  always  has  complete  command  of  the  mus 
cles  he  calls  into  requisition.  A  teacher  of  writing 
must  therefore  so  direct  his  instruction  as  to  secure 
this  end. 

Some  discipline  of  the  muscles  used  in  writing  ia 
obtained  by  a  child  who  merely  marks  with  his 
pencil  upon  a  slate,  or  with  a  piece  of  chalk  upon 
a  blackboard ;  and,  on  the  whole,  I  consider  such 
exercises  an  advantage  to  the  pupil  in  learning  to 
write,  although  he  may  not  hold  the  pencil  or  crayon 
as  a  pen  should  be  held.  A  few  days  of  patient 
training  when  he  begins  to  write  with  a  pen,  will 
accustom  the  pupil  to  hold  it  correctly. 

No  better  discipline  of  the  muscles  used  in  writing 


456  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

can  be  had  than  that  which  is  furnished  by  per 
forming  elementary  Drawing-exercises.  Close  obser 
vers  have  remarked  that  pupils  generally  write  best 
who  have  been  taught  to  draw.  Horace  Mann  in 
reporting  upon  his  visit  to  the  schools  in  different 
parts  of  Europe  mentions  this  fact. 

Works  on  Penmanship  often  contain  special  ex 
ercises  designed  for  training  the  muscles  of  the  arm 
and  fingers.  Such  exercises  are  very  valuable. 
No  description  of  them  is  necessary  here;  but  it 
might  be  remarked  that  they  should  be  well  graded, 
and  that  teaching  should  commence  with  the 
simplest. 

Tracing  the  letters  as  noticed  upon  a  preceding 
page  is  useful  not  only  in  aiding  the  pupil  to  con 
ceive  the  correct  forms  of  letters,  but  also  in  train 
ing  the  muscles  in  executing  these  forms. 

Some  additional  suggestions  are  deemed  appro 
priate  : 

Apart  from  the  general  exercises  calculated  to  aid 
the  pupils  in  conceiving  the  forms  of  letters  or  in 
getting  command  of  the  muscles  used  in  making 
them,  a  recitation  in  Writing  will  consist  mainly 
in  calling  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the  forms 
of  letters  composing  the  lesson,  describing  these 
forms,  analyzing  them,  showing  how  they  ought  to 
be  made,  and  then  requiring  the  models  given  to  be 
carefully  imitated. 

Much  the  best  copies  for  imitation  are  those  which 
are  arranged  on  loose  slips.  Copy-books  with 
engraved  head-lines  may  not  suit  the  circumstances 
of  the  class.  They  may  advance  from  easy  lessons 


WRITING.  457 

to  those  which  are  difficult,  too  fast  or  too  slowly. 
Besides,  in  using  them,  pupils  are  apt,  after  writing 
two  or  three  lines,  to  forget  to  look  at  the  head 
line  ;  whereas,  nlips  can  be  readily  moved  down 
the  copy  as  the  pupil  proceeds  with  his  work.  It 
is  an  advantage  many  times,  also,  for  the  pupils  to 
rewrite  their  lessons.  If  a  teacher  has  ample  time, 
writes  a  suitable  hand,  and  has  a  prospect  of  remain 
ing  a  long  time  in  one  school,  it  may  be  well  for 
him  to  "  set  the  copies"  or  write  the  models  himself; 
but  as  these  contingencies  seldom  exist,  it  is  better 
for  teachers  generally  to  adopt  some  good  system 
of  Penmanship  and  follow  it.  Under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  pupils  might  take  more 
interest  in  copying  a  teacher's  hand-writing  than 
in  imitating  models ;  but  pupils  lose  so  much  much 
by  being  required  to  imitate  the  ungraceful  char 
acters  made  by  poor  pensmen,  and  by  being  com 
pelled  to  change  their  hand-writing  with  every 
change  of  teachers,  that  it  is  time  this  practice  of 
"  setting  copies"  should  be  abandoned.  A  system 
of  Penmanship  adopted  and  a  set  of  models  chosen, 
the  teacher  must  conform  his  instruction  to  it.  This 
is  very  essential  to  success.  The  first  lessons  for 
children  should  consist  of  elements,  letters,  or  words 
written  in  a  clear,  neat,  and  plain  hand.  The 
general  length  of  the  letters  should  be  for  first  les 
sons  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch ;  but  after  some 
pra<  tice,  pupils  may  be  allowed  to  write  both  large 
and  small  hand. 

In  forming  his  style,  the  pupil  ought  to  have  the 
model  constantly  before  him ;  but  the  manner  of 
making  the  letters  must  become  BO  familiar  that 

39 


158  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   ARTS. 

he  can  preserve  the  same  style  in  writing  dictated 
copies  without  a  model.  Teachers  will  do  well  to 
require  the  pupil  to  observe  in  all  his  writing  the 
directions  given  in  the  writing-class.  Without  such 
attention,  pupils  can  never  become  habituated  to 
the  use  of  a  uniform  and  correct  style  of  writing. 

There  is  the  same  reason  for  classification  in  writ 
ing  as  in  other  studies;  and  in  conducting  a  recita 
tion,  much  loss  of  time  is  avoided  by  introducing 
it,  with  such  illustrations  upon  the  blackboard  as 
the  lesson  may  require,  and,  in  the  same  manner, 
during  its  continuance,  exhibiting  the  errors  made 
by  the  pupils  in  their  work.  If  the  blackboards  are 
good,  the  pupils  themselves  may  use  them  to  great 
advantage  in  learning  to  write.  All  the  pupils  in  a 
class  should  practice  the  same  lessons  at  the  same 
time. 

Nothing  need  be  said  here  concerning  the  kind  of 
desks  or  tables  best  adapted  for  the  purposes  of 
writing,  or  of  the  manner  of  sitting  and  holding 
the  pen,  or  of  moving  the  fingers  or  arm,  as  all  this 
is  sufficiently  discussed  in  works  on  Penmanship. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  errors  pupils  make 
in  their  writing  should  be  corrected.  The  best  way 
to  do  this,  probably,  is  for  the  teacher  to  pass  to 
each  pupil  while  engaged  at  his  work,  call  his 
attention  to  his  errors,  and  make  such  suggestions 
to  him  as  seem  necessary.  The  teacher  may  correct 
general  errors  by  showing  in  what  they  consist  upon 
the  blackboard.  Two  or  three  critics  may  be  ap 
pointed  every  day  from  among  the  members  of  the 
class  to  examine  the  copies  and  report  the  errors,  or 
the  copies  may  be  exchanged  for  this  purpose. 


DRAWING.  459 

II.  Drawing. 

Drawing  is  the  art  of  representing  objects  by 
means  of  lines  and  shades.  Like  writing,  Drawing 
is  partly  a  mental  and  partly  a  mechanical  operation. 
One  who  draws  must  first  conceive  objects,  and 
afterwards  represent  them.  Drawing,  however, 
aims  to  represent  all  objects,  while  writing  is  con 
fined  to  the  representation  of  a  particular  class  of 
objects;  and,  in  the  case  of  Drawing,  the  objects 
are  mostly  concrete,  while  in  writing  they  are 
always  abstract. 

As  drawing  is  not  generally  taught  in  our  Com 
mon  Schools,  some  of  the  advantages  of  skill  in 
this  branch  of  study  may  be  pointed  out. 

Skill  in  Drawing  aids  very  much  in  learning  and 
reciting  other  studies.  Maps  should  be  drawn  in 
Geography  ;  diagrams,  in  Mathematics  ;  and  plants 
and  animals  should  be  represented  in  the  Natural 
Sciences.  Elementary  Drawing-exercises  form  a 
very  good  introduction  to  writing.  Indeed,  there  is 
scarcely  any  study  in  which  skill  in  Drawing  may 
not  be  turned  to  good  account.  Skill  in  Drawing  is 
indispensable  in  some  kinds  of  business.  It  is  so  to 
the  engineer,  architect,  and  machinist.  It  is  almost 
equally  so  to  the  farmer,  the  miner,  the  teacher,  and 
the  physician.  There  is  no  position  or  kind  of 
business  in  which  an  individual  might  not  find  an 
opportunity  to  make  an  advantageous  use  of  skill  in 
Drawing.  To  draw  well  one  must  observe  closely, 
and  this  gives  valuable  discipline  to  the  senses  and 
the  perceptive  faculties.  Drawing  is  the  language 
of  the  eye,  and  it  often  enables  us  to  communicate 
what  could  not  well  be  stated  in  words.  A  person 


460  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

desiring  to  have  a  new  building  erected  or  pleasure- 
grounds  laid  out,  can  communicate  to  his  work 
men  more  knowledge  in  a  few  minutes  by  draw 
ing  his  plans,  than  he  could  by  long  hours  of  verbal 
explanation.  So  a  traveller  in  a  strange  country 
can  ofttimes  convey  more  true  knowledge  by  a 
rough  sketch  of  some  remarkable  object  in  nature 
or  art,  than  he  could  do  by  a  labored  description. 
In  its  higher  departments,  Drawing  is  well  calcu 
lated  to  awaken  the  mind  to  the  perception  of  new 
beauties,  as  it  requires  a  careful  study  of  nature; 
and  when  it  rises  from  the  sphere  of  an  imitative 
art  to  that  of  a  creative  art,  no  other  study  can 
furnish  higher  or  better  culture  for  the  judgment, 
the  imagination,  and  the  taste. 

While  it  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  children  may 
begin  to  learn  to  draw  when  quite  young — before 
they  commence  learning  to  write,  teachers  of  Draw 
ing  differ  very  much  as  to  the  best  method  of  in 
structing  them.  But  although  almost  every  system 
of  Drawing  differs  in  some  of  its  details  from  all 
other  systems,  all  of  them  may  be  arranged  into  two 
classes ;  and  there  are,  therefore,  two  methods  of 
teaching  Drawing.  The  first  commences  with  a 
straight  line,  as  the  simplest  element  used  in  Draw 
ing,  and  may  be  called  the  Abstract  Method;  the 
second  commences  with  objects,  or  the  pictures  of 
objects,  and  may  be  called  the  Concrete  Method. 

1.  THE  ABSTRACT  METHOD.  —  All  objects  that 
can  be  represented  by  drawing  them  are  either 
bounded  by  straight  or  curved  lines.  The  simples! 
of  th<j  two  kinds  of  lines  is  the  straight  line;  ami. 


DRAWING-.  461 

hence,  many  teachers  of  Drawing  commence  their 
instruction  with  exercises  on  the  straight  line.  Be 
fore  the  pupils  commence  their  lessons,  however,  it 
might  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  draw  the  outlines  of 
several  objects  bounded  by  straight  lines,  upon  the 
blackboard,  and  have  them  notice  the  kind  of  lines 
of  which  they  are  composed,  and  the  manner  in 
which  one  line  is  added  to  another  to  build  them  up. 
In  short,  pupils  may  be  led  to  see  by  such  an 
analysis,  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  required  to 
make  lines,  and  why  they  should  make  them  cor 
rectly.  The  best  way  of  developing  this  method  of 
teaching  Drawing  is  by  presenting  brief  descriptions 
of  a  series  of  exercises. 

FIRST  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  Straight  Lines. — 
These  lines  may  be  made  of  different  lengths ;  they 
may  be  made  perpendicular,  horizontal,  or  inclined 
at  different  angles;  they  may  converge,  diverge,  or 
run  parallel;  or  they  may  be  bisected,  trisected,  or 
divided  into  any  required  number  of  parts. 

SECOND  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES. — Combinations  of  two 
Straight  Lines. — These  combinations  will  be  better 
understood  by  examples  than  by  descriptions : 

LJI     LLT+XHMIW 


Such   examples   as   these   may  be  duplicated  as 
follows  : 


L  JJ 


462  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES. — Combinations  of  three 
Straight  Lines. — The  following  figures  are  examples 
of  this  kind  of  combinations  : 


AV 


FOURTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  Combinations  of 
more  than  three  Straight  Lines. — Under  this  class 
there  may  be  included  all  triangles  divided  by  a 
single  straight  line,  squares,  rectangles,  rhombs, 
trapeziums,  all  kinds  of  polygons,  and  an  immense 
number  of  other  figures  that  can  be  made  to  furnish 
a  great  variety  of  lessons. 

FIFTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES. — The  Imitation  of  real 
Objects  bounded  by  Straight  Lines. — This  class  of  ex 
ercises  is  intended  to  give  pupils  practice  in  imita 
ting  the  pictures  of  real  objects  bounded  by  straight 
lines.  Among  the  thousands  of  objects  suitable  for 
the  purpose,  the  following  may  be  named  as  ex 
amples:  boxes,  books,  blocks,  posts,  milestones, 
stools,  tables,  stars,  crosses,  doors,  windows,  houses, 
castles,  &c. 

SIXTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  The  Invention  of 
Figures  bounded  by  Straight  Lines. — Drawing  is  not 
only  an  imitative  but  a  creative  art,  and  pupils 
should  have  practice  in  inventing  figures.  The 
teacher  may  first  exhibit  a  few  original  designs  upon 
the  blackboard.  From  this  the  pupils  wTill  under 
stand  what  is  wanted;  and  if  there  is  not  soon  an 
interested  class,  and  eventually  some  fine  work  done 
by  it,  it  will  be  contrary  to  my  experience.  Such 


DRAWING.  463 

problems  may  be  assigned  as  follows  :  given  three, 
four,  five,  or  any  number  of  straight  lines,  to  form 
a  design  of  them  ;  given  a  figure,  a  triangle,  a  square, 
or  a  parallelogram,  to  combine  with  straight  lines  ; 
given  one  figure  to  combine  with  another;  as  tri 
angle  with  triangle,  triangle  with  square  ;  squares, 
stars,  hexagons,  with  one  another. 

SEVENTH    CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  Curved  Lines.  — 
A  few  simple  curves  may  be  presented  as  examples  : 


EIGHTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  Combinations  of 
Curved  and  Straight  Lines.  —  Examples  of  such  com 
binations  may  be  found  in  sections  of  circles,  sec 
tions  of  ellipses,  cones,  cylinders,  many  of  the 
letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and  thousands  of  objects. 

NINTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES.  —  The  Invention  qf 
Figures  bounded  ly  Curved  or  Curved  and  Straight 
Lines.  —  This  class  of  exercises  opens  a  wide  field  for 
the  display  of  ingenuity  and  taste. 

After  sufficient  practice  has  been  allowed  in  the 
preceding  exercises,  pupils  may  receive  lessons  in 
Shading  and  Perspective,  but  such  remarks  as  I 
have  to  make  concerning  the  methods  of  imparting 
such  lessons  will  be  postponed  until  something  has 
been  said  of  the  second  general  method  of  teaching 
Drawing. 

2    THE  CONCRETE  METHOD.  —  The  concrete  is  the 


46-i  INSTRUCTION    IN   THE   ARTS. 

most  effective  form  in  which  knowledge  can  bo 
communicated  to  children.  We  have  found  that 
lessons  on  objects  should  precede  all  other  kinds  of 
instruction ;  and  it  is  very  natural  that  children 
should  take  most  interest  in  drawing  the  objects 
about  which  they  are  otherwise  learning  something. 
Any  teacher  can  try  the  experiment  for  himself,  and 
he  will  find  that  while  children  will  be  delighted  to 
spend  hours  every  day  in  trying  to  draw  blocks, 
posts,  houses,  cats,  or  cows,  they  will  soon  grow 
tired  of  making  lines,  triangles,  or  circles.  JSTature 
thus  indicates  that  the  first  lessons  in  Drawing 

o 

should  be  in  a  concrete  form.  What  if  it  be  said 
that  objects  are  not  as  simple  as  lines,  or  that  it  is 
impossible  for  a  child  to  draw  them  correctly,  the 
answer  is  ready,  that  in  this  way  they  learn  every 
thing  else.  Children  do  not  first  learn  the  elements 
but  the  wholes  of  things.  Let  them  commence 
learning  to  draw  as  they  commence  learning  other 
things,  and  it  will  be  found  that  what  is  natural  is 
the  most  effective.  Children  will  even  spend  much 
time  in  "playing  Drawing,"  if  provided  writh  proper 
materials.  It  is,  doubtless,  proper  that  pupils  some 
what  advanced  should  analyze  figures,  and  com 
mence  with  straight  lines ;  but  I  am  here  speaking 
of  instruction  to  beginners. 

As  with  the  Abstract  method,  the  spirit  of  the 
Concrete  method  can  be  best  appreciated  from  a 
series  of  exercises. 

FIRST  CLASS  or  EXERCISES. —  The  Pictures  of  Ob 
jects. — It  is  more  easy,  and,  I  think,  more  interest 
ing,  for  children  to  draw  the  pictures  of  objects  than 


DEAWING.  465 

the  objects  themselves.  The  first  lessons  should 
consist  of  the  outlines  of  the  simplest  objects,  such 
as  boxes,  books,  posts,  gates,  doors,  houses,  &c. ; 
but,  although  more  difficult,  no  harm  can  result 
from  suffering  children  to  attempt  to  draw  cats, 
horses,  fowls,  dogs,  human  figures,  &c. 

SECOND  CLASS  or  EXERCISES. — Drawing  the  Pictures 
of  Objects  from  Memory. — In  the  preceding  class  of 
exercises,  it  is  presumed  that  the  pupils  have  books 
or  cards  from  which  they  copy  the  pictures.  This 
done,  it  will  be  found  of  great  advantage  to  repro 
duce  them  from  memory.  Drawing  pictures  from 
memory  is  more  difficult  than  copying  pictures; 
but  its  disciplinary  advantages  are  proportionably 
greater. 

THIRD  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES. — Drawing  real  Objects. 
—  Having  copied  the  picture  of  an  object,  and  re 
produced  it  from  memory,  the  pupil  is  well  prepared 
to  draw  the  object  itself.  For  this  purpose  schools 
should  be  furnished  with  sets  of  model-objects,  cor 
responding  to  the  pictures  upon  the  drawing-cards, 
or  in  the  drawing-books.  In  the  absence  of  these, 
however,  the  teacher  need  be  at  little  loss  to  find 
things  suitable  for  lessons  with  the  world  full  of 
objects  about  him. 

FOURTH  CLASS  OF  EXERCISES. — Inventive  drawing. 
— To  succeed  in  the  higher  departments  of  Inventive 
Drawing,  requires  a  highly  cultured  imagination, 
and  a  correct  taste;  but  even  children  may  be 
taught  tc  draw  objects  and  combinations  of  objects 


466  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    1RTS. 

that  are  not  copies  of  anything  they  have  ever  seen, 
and  even  to  design  the  simplest  kinds  of  monuments, 
gates,  pleasure-grounds,  landscapes,  houses,  &c.  In 
deed,  this  kind  of  work  is  done  by  children  who 
have  been  well  taught,  with  intense  interest;  and 
nothing  can  be  better  calculated  to  cultivate  in 
genuity,  or  give  opportunity  of  growth  to  the  bud 
ding  imagination. 

These  four  classes  of  exercises  indicate  all  that  id 
peculiar  to  this  method.  The  method  is  particularly 
adapted  to  children,  and  aims  only  to  communicate 
a  popular  knowledge  of  the  art  of  Drawing.  Pupils 
receiving  instruction  in  Drawing  up  to  the  point 
indicated  in  the  preceding  exercises,  according  to 
this  method,  can  enter  upon  the  analysis  of  forms 
arid  their  composition,  as  contemplated  in  the  Ab 
stract  Method,  with  great  profit.  Thus  here,  as 
everywhere  else,  principles  will  be  found  to  under 
lie  appearances.  The  Concrete  Method  merely  con 
templates  the  imitation  of  appearances,  while  the 
Abstract  Method  contemplates,  in  addition,  the 
study  of  principles.  With  pupils  who  are  prepared 
for  it,  the  two  methods  may  be  combined. 

The  time  is  now  come  when  something  must  be 
said  of  Shading,  Shadow,  and  Perspective. 

Pupils  will  readily  appreciate  the  effect  of  Shad 
ing  if  the  teacher  first  draw  the  outline  of  a  simple 
object,  and  then  shade  it.  They  may  then  engage 
in  imitating  the  Shading  of  pictures,  and,  finally, 
practice  the  Shading  of  real  objects.  Much  may  be 
done  in  this  way,  according  to  the  Concrete  Method, 


DRAWING.  467 

to  improve  the  pupil's  taste  and  increase  his  skill, 
before  he  could  learn  the  laws  of  Optics  upon  which 
the  distribution  of  light  depends.  When  the  time 
comes  for  learning  these  laws,  they  must  be  learned 
and  applied  after  the  spirit  of  the  Abstract  Method, 
by  commencing  with  the  simplest  and  proceeding 
to  the  more  difficult. 

What  has  been  said  of  Shading  applies  equally 
well  to  Shadow. 

Distant  objects  do  not  appear  to  the  eye  under 
the  same  angle  as  near  ones,  and  as  Drawing  must 
be  true  to  nature,  objects  should  be  represented  as 
they  appear.  Hence  the  necessity  of  Perspective 
in  Drawing.  Some  idea  of  the  nature  of  Perspec 
tive  can  he  imparted  to  learners  by  calling  their 
attention  to  the  appearance  of  a  long  street,  bridge, 
or  hall,  trees  planted  on  each  side  of  an  avenue,  or  a 
railroad  track.  Illustrations  of  Perspective  Drawing 
should  be  given  by  the  teacher  upon  the  blackboard. 
The  pupils  must  be  required  to  imitate  a  progressive 
series  of  models.  It  is  all  important  to  train  the 
eye  to  judge  accurately  of  Perspective,  as  it  is  im 
possible  to  take  time  to  apply  particularly  all  the 
laws  of  Perspective  in  drawing  an  object.  "Ruskin 
and  other  celebrated  artists  confirm  this  view. 
When  the  pupil  is  prepared  for  it,  however,  he 
should  be  made  acquainted  with  these  laws,  and 
learn  to  demonstrate  their  truth. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  say  further  in  regard  to 
methods  of  teaching  Drawing  that,  as  in  writing, 
they  must  have  reference  to  the  training  of  the 
muscles  employed  as  well  as  to  the  conception  of 
form.  As  in  writing,  too,  the  pupils  should  be 


468  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

taught  in  classes;  the  blackboard  should  be  in 
constant  use  both  by  the  teacher  and  pupils ;  good 
models  should  be  at  hand  for  imitation ;  conve 
nient  tables  and  seats,  and  suitable  apparatus,  should 
be  provided ;  and  great  care  should  be  taken  in  the 
correction  of  errors. 

HI.  Vocal  Music. 

Vocal  Music,  when  rightly  considered,  is  linguistic 
in  its  nature,  and  closely  related  to  Reading.  The 
principal  points  of  resemblance  between  them  are 
that  the  words  used  in  Vocal  Music,  as  in  Reading, 
are  required  to  be  correctly  pronounced,  and  pro 
perly  appreciated  both  in  respect  to  thought  and 
feeling;  that  while  Speech  is  more  the  language 
of  the  intellect,  and  Song  exclusively  the  language 
of  the  feelings,  both  are  used  for  the  purposes  of 
communication  by  all  races  and  conditions  of  men. 
The  affinity  of  Speech  and  Song  is  so  close,  that 
they  are  sometimes  combined  in  a  kind  of  compo 
sition  called  Recitative.  The  most  marked  differ 
ences  between  Reading  and  Singing  are  that  in 
Reading  the  common  sounds  of  the  voice  are  used, 

O 

while  in  Singing  these  sounds  are  modified  and 
receive  the  name  of  tones ;  that  "  no  idea,  thought, 
term,  proposition,  or  meaning,  is  directly  conveyed 
in  Song;"  and  that  Speech  has  no  fixed  clef  for 
comparing  one  note  with  another,  and  can,  therefore, 
neither  give  pleasure  by  presenting  a  melodious 
succession  of  notes,  nor  by  observing  their  harmo 
nious  relationships. 

The  Study  of  Vocal  Music  is  too  much  neglected, 
and  it  will  not  therefore  be  amiss  to  state  some  of 


VOCAL    MUSIC.  469 

the  advantages  which  may  be  expected  to  result 
from  its  more  general  introduction  into  our  schools. 

Music  gives  pleasant  employment  during  leisure 
hours.  There  are  times  of  leisure  in  every  family 
—  evenings,  Saturday  afternoons,  Sabbaths,  and 
these  seasons  can  be  made  to  yield  more  true  enjoy 
ment  if  enlivened  with  or  improved  by  appropriate 
Music.  lie  who  is  fond  of  Music  need  never  suffer 
from  ennui,  for  he  has  a  constant  source  of  the 
purest  pleasure  within  himself.  Besides,  tempta 
tions  come  to  the  young,  especially  to  young  men, 
during  hours  in  which  they  are  not  employed.  It 
is  then  that  the  dull  family  fireside  is  deserted  for 
the  enjoyments  of  the  tavern,  the  theatre,  the  club- 
room,  or  the  street-corner,  vice  presents  her  allure 
ments,  the  unsuspecting  are  enticed  into  her  toils, 
and  thousands  fall.  Home  should  be  made  more 
attractive,  and  nothing  is  better  calculated  to  give 
it  charms  than  Music. 

Music  increases  social  pleasures.  It  has  just  been 
said  that  Music  adds  attraction  to  the  circle  of  the 
family ;  it  is  now  asserted  that  this  is  true  with 
respect  to  larger  circles  of  friends  wherever  they 
may  meet.  Rude  choruses  are  heard  in  the  rough 
cabins  of  wild  savages,  and  grand  concerts  make 
echo  the  walls  of  great  halls  in  civilized  cities. 
Peasants  sing  in  their  cottages  on  festive  occasions, 
and  Music  graces  the  banquets  of  kings  in  their 
palaces.  The  social  party  is  comparatively  dull 
unless  enlivened  by  the  influences  of  song.  "  The 
most  joyous  of  joys  is  Music." 

Music  cheers  men  on  in  the  performance  of  duty. 
The  mother  soothes  her  sick  child  with  Music;  with 

40 


470  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

Music  the  laborer  lightens  his  toil;  with  Music  our 
thoughts  are  turned  heavenward  in  the  house  of 
God,  and  to  the  sounds  of  Music  patriot  soldiers 
march  to  battle.  True,  Music  lends  its  attractions  to 
the  theatre ;  Music  is  employed  to  charm  the  ear, 
while  the  soul  is  led  captive  by  the  allurements  of 
wine,  cards,  or  other  forms  of  wickedness  ;  but  this 
is  a  monstrous  perversion  of  one  of  the  most  beauti 
ful  and  excellent  gifts  of  God. 

Music  purifies  the  taste.  The  taste  is  purified  by 
contact  with  what  is  beautiful.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  there  is  beauty  in  Music,  and  hence  if  the 
young  be  made  to  appreciate  it,  the  rougher  parts 
o^  their  nature  would  be  refined,  their  wilder  pas 
sions  would  be  calmed,  and  their  tastes  would  revolt 
at  what  is  low  and  degrading,  and  long  for  a  uni 
versal  harmony  that  would  embrace  both  the  world 
of  matter  and  the  world  of  spirit. 

Music  promotes  good  morals.  It  does  this  by 
furnishing  employment  for  leisure  hours,  by  in 
creasing  the  pleasures  of  social  life,  by  cheering 
men  on  in  the  performance  of  duty,  and  by  purify 
ing  the  taste.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the  natural 
tendency  of  Music  is  to  enrich  and  ennoble  the  whole 
emotional  life.  From  a  love  of  the  beautiful,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  attain  to  a  love  of  the  true  and  the 
good.  There  is  something  very  much  like  Music 
in  loving  our  neighbors  as  ourselves.  The  "  Uni 
versal  Harmony"  of  Pythagoras  was  more  than  the 
dream  of  an  enthusiast ;  it  was  the  vision  of  a  phi 
losopher.  This  position  is  taken  in  full  view  of  the 
fact  that  vulgar  and  profane  thoughts  are  sometimes 
expressed  in  song,  and  that  vice  often  makes  use  of 


VOCAL    MUSIC.  471 

Music  to  gild  her  deformities.  Bat  such  perversions 
are  not  the  misfortune  of  Music  alone.  The  other 
Fine  Arts,  speech,  the  sacred  rites  of  religion  itself, 
have  been  forced  into  the  service  of  sin. 

Music  induces  a  spirit  of  devotion.  The  Bible 
contains  ample  evidence  that  blessed  spirits  and 
angels  chant  their  choruses  around  the  throne  of 
God;  St.  Paul  commands  the  Colossians  to  teacb 
and  admonish  one  another  in  psalms,  and  hymns, 
and  spiritual  songs ;  and  during  the  whole  past 
history  of  the  Church,  since  the  children  of  Israel 
sang  unto  the  Lord  on  the  banks  of  the  Red  Sea, 
until  the  present,  Music  has  been  employed  for  the 
highest  and  holiest  purposes. 

All  these  uses  are  general;  Music  is  specially 
valuable  in  school,  both  in  relieving  the  tedium  of 
study  and  in  promoting  good  order.  Its  influence 
upon  a  school,  when  well  directed,  is  valuable  phy 
sically,  ^Esthetically,  socially,  morally,  and  reli 
giously. 

Poetry  is  the  beautiful  as  expressed  in  rhythmical 
words.  Music  is  the  beautiful  as  expressed  in 
measured  tones.  Such  words  uttered  in  such  tones 
constitute  Vocal  Music,  or  Song. 

.Apart  from  the  Pronunciation  of  words  and  the 
appreciation  of  the  thought  and  feeling  of  discourse, 
both  already  treated  of,  methods  of  teaching  Yocal 
Music  as  designed  to  be  discussed  here,  embrace : 
first,  the  Training  of  the  Vocal  Organs ;  second,  the 
Culture  of  the  Musical  Taste;  and,  third,  Musical 
Execution. 

l    THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS.  —  Music 


472  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

like  Reading  is  a  vocal  art,  and  the  voice  has  the 
same  general  capabilities  in  both.  Music  as  a  vocal 
art  concerns  the  Quality,  Compass,  Movement,  and 
Quantity  of  the  voice.  By  the  Qualities  of  the 
voice  are  meant  its  tones ;  but  since  tones  form  the 
bases  of  Musical  composition,  their  utterance  bears 
the  same  relation  to  Vocal  Music  that  the  Pronun 
ciation  of  words  does  to  Reading.  Hence  the  Qua 
lity  of  the  voice  comes  first  in  order,  and  vocal 
training  with  respect  to  music  may  be  considered 
under  the  following  heads : 

1st.  The  qualities  of  the  voice,  or  Tones. 

2d.  The  height  or  lowness  of  tones,  or  Melody. 

3d.  The  length  or  shortness  of  tones,  or  Rhythm. 

4th.  The  loudness  or  softness  of  tones,  or  Dynamics. 

Harmony,  including  both  the  perception  of  simul 
taneous,  concordant  tones,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
laws  which  govern  them,  is  purely  a  product  of  the 
intellect,  and  not  of  the  voice. 

Having  very  little  practical  knowledge  of  Yoca] 
Music,  it  is  right  to  say  that  what  follows  is  mainly 
the  result  of  theory,  and  of  observations  upon  the 
teaching  of  others. 

Elementary  Music  books  are  very  full  of  well- 
arranged  exercises  intended  to  be  used  in  training 
the  voice  to  sing,  and  it  is  not  deemed  necessary  to 
attempt  to  give  here  detailed  descriptions  of  them. 
My  end  will  be  gained  if  I  succeed  in  announcing 
some  general  principles  that  will  be  of  advantage 
in  guiding  the  teacher  in  the  use  of  such  books 


VOCAL   MUSIC.  47.3 

1.  Teachers  of  Vocal  Music  should  be  careful  to  secure 
those  Qualities  of  Voice  which  enable  the  Pupil  to  utter 
Tones   correctly.  —  Some   persons   are   naturally  en 
dowed  with  voices  which  render  it  easy  for  them  to 
learn  to  sing ;  but  there  are  others  who  have  voices 
so  defective  that  they  can   scarcely  utter,  without 
training,  the  simplest  tones.    If  a  teacher  find  among 
his  pupils  those  who  have  rough,  shrill,  harsh,  nasal, 
or  weak  voices,   or  voices  otherwise  incapable  of 
uttering  pure    tones,    he    must,   by   Physiological 
means,  do  what  he  can  to  correct  them,  before  much 
progress  is   possible   in   learning   to    sing.     Pupils 
with  defective  voices  must  be  brought  to  perceive 
their  defects,  good   models  must  be  presented  to 
them  for  imitation,  and  they  must  be  made  to  engage 
in  vocal  exercises  calculated  to  impart  the  needed 
culture.     In  many  cases  it  may  be  sufficient  to  con 
nect  practice  in  uttering  simple  tones  writh  practice 
in  Pitch,  Time,  and  Force. 

2.  Teachers  of  Vocal  Music  should  exhibit  Musical 
Sounds  to  their  Pupils  before  requiring  them  to  commit 
their   Names.  —  Tones    should    be    uttered    by   the 
teacher  in  all  their  varieties,  high  and  low,  long  and 
short,  loud  and  soft,  and  the  pupils  be  engaged  in 
distinguishing   them    as   uttered,    and   in    uttering 
them  themselves,  before  they  receive  names.    Things 
naturally  precede  words.     A  child  learns  to  speak 
by  imitating  the  sounds  he  hears ;  and  so  a  child 
must  hear  tones  before  he  can  imitate  them,  or  form 
any  idea  as  to  what  their  names  signify.     The  same 
gradual  progress  from  the  easy  to  the  difficult  must 
be    made   here  as  in   other   studies.     The  teacher 

40* 


474  INSTRUCTION    IN   THE    ARTS. 

must  first  give  the  simplest  tones,  require  his  pupils 
to  imitate  them,  and  learn  their  names ;  and  then 
proceed  in  the  same  way  to  dispose  of  those  more 
difficult. 

3.  Teachers  of   Vocal  Music  should  acquaint  their 
Pupils  with  Musical  Sounds  before  they  require  them  to 
learn  the  Musical  Notation. — Children  are  often  taught 
the  symbols  used  in  musical  notation  before  they  have 
any  true  conception  of  the  thing  signified  by  them. 
They  are  expected  to  sing  by  note  before  they  can 
sing  by  air.    This  is  as  great  a  mistake  as  to  attempt 
to  teach  a  child  to  read  before  he  can  speak.     The 
difficulty  learners  have  in  reading  Music,  probably 
arises  to  some  extent  from  this  fault.     It  cannot  be 
doubted,  however,  that  musical   notation  properly 
used  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  learner  as  it  repre 
sents  to  the  eye  and   fixes  in  the  mind  the  more 
easily-forgotten  conceptions  that  are  formed  through 
the  ear. 

4.  Teachers  of  Vocal  Music  should  begin  their  course 
of  Instruction  to  Children  by  teaching  them  Little  Songs 
and  Hymns. — Yocal  Music  is  no   exception  to  the 
principle  that  the  concrete  is  the  most  effective  form 
in  which  elementary  instruction  can  be  given.     No 
great  profit  can    arise  from    requiring   children  to 
begin  a  course  of  systematic   instruction  in  Vocal 
Music  before  they  are  ten  years  of  age.     Indeed, 
if  great  care  is  not  taken  to  confine  them,  even  at 
that  age,  to  such  exercises  as  will   not   overstrain 
their  vocal  organs,  much  injury  may  be  done  them. 
But  a  child  can  begin  to  learn  to  sing  as  soon  a&  he 


VOCAL    MUSIC.  475 

can  talk.  From  this  time  on,  both  parent  and 
teacher  must  furnish  him  with  opportunity  to  sing 
and  give  all  needful  help.  Up  to  the  age  of  ten 
years,  therefore,  the  instruction  of  a  child  in  Vocal 
Music  should  consist  in  teaching  him  to  sing  by  air 
suitable  songs  and  hymns.  Our  language  contains 
some  such  musical  compositions.  The  common 
rhymes  of  the  nursery  are  better  than  nothing, 
though  they  are  susceptible  of  great  improvement. 
Sc  well  convinced  am  I  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
benefits  which  might  be  derived  from  this  form  of 
insl  ruction,  tha*  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  this 
age  could  produce  no  greater  benefactor  to  the  race 
than  he  would  be  who  could  succeed  in  placing  a 
collection  of  songs  and  hymns,  adapted  to  the  capa 
cities  and  tastes  of  children,  within  the  reach  of 
every  family  and  primary  school  in  the  land. 

5.  For  Pupils  from  the  age  of  ten  to  fourteen.  Teachers 
of  Vocal  Music  should  have  two  independent  courses 
of  Instruction :  one  intended  to  give  practice  in  Sing 
ing,  and  the  other  to  impart  Systematic  Vocal  Culture. 
—  If  a  teacher  could  find  suitable  songs  corres 
ponding  to  abstract  vocal  exercises  and  in  which 
these  exercises  could  be  applied,  it  would  be  wrell 
to  combine  the  two  courses  from  the  beginning; 
but  it  is  presumed  that  this  is  impracticable :  and, 
since  neither  can  be  omitted  without  harm,  instruc 
tion  in  both  may  proceed  independently.  By  two 
independent  courses  of  instruction,  it  is  not  meant 
that  the  singing  and  the  vocal  training  should  have 
no  relation  to  each  other ;  but  the  design  is  to  allow 
the  teacher  to  select  a  number  of  songs  to  be  sung, 


476  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

and  a  series  of  vocal  exercises  to  be  practiced,  with 
out  necessarily  adapting  the  former  to  the  latter. 
Both  kinds  of  instruction  may  be  combined  in  the 
same  recitation. 

From  the  age  of  fourteen,  pupils  may  be  taught 
to  apply  the  disciplinary  vocal  exercises  in  songs, 
At  this  age,  both  kinds  of  exercises  can  be  made 
mutually  illustrative.  A  song  can  be  sung,  and  the 
pupils  can  be  required  to  write  the  music ;  or  they 
can  be  asked  to  find  words  suited  to  music  already 
written. 

6.  Teachers  of  Vocal  Music  should  be  careful  to  adapt 
their  Musical  ^Exercises  to  the   Vocal  Powers  of  their 
Pupils. — It  is  a  well-known  Physiological  law  that 
the   human   muscles   are   weakened   by  either  too 
much  or  too   little  exercise.      This    law  must   be 
observed  in  training  the  vocal  organs.    It  is  equally 
well  known  that  muscular  strength  can  be  imparted 
only  by  the  patient  application  of  a  well-graded, 
progressive  series  of  exercises.     Children's  voices, 
too,  are  more  limited  in  Pitch  and  Force  than  are 
those  of  older  persons,  and  any  vocal  training  con 
ducted  without  regard  to  this  fact  will  be  hurtful. 

7.  Teachers  of  Vocal  Music  should  make  their  instruc 
tion  very  exact  and  thorough. — Exactness  and  thorough 
ness  should  be  a  characteristic  of  all  teaching ;  but 
there  is  a  special  reason  for  it  in  a  study  like  Music. 
The  misstatement  of  a  fact  or  the  misunderstanding 
of  a  principle  can  be  readily  corrected ;  but  pupils 
whose  taste  is  vitiated  by  listening  to  unmusical 
sounds  or  whose  vocal  organs  are  habituated  to  the 


VOCAL    MUSIC.  477 

utterance  of  them,  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  over 
come  faults  thus  produced.  The  very  essence  of 
Music  is  order  among  sounds;  and  lessons  in  Music 
should  be  so  well  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  pupils, 
so  carefully  graded,  and  so  thoroughly  taught  that 
pupils  may  have  constantly  before  them  an  ideal, 
approximating  as  nearly  as  possible  to  perfection. 

Vocal  exercises  are  made  more  effective  if  an  in 
strument  be  played  in  connection  with  them  as  an 
accompaniment.  The  instrument  guides  the  voice. 
Practice  in  composing  musical  exercises  is  very  ad 
vantageous.  Pupils  can  commence  the  composition 
of  simple  pieces  very  early  in  their  course,  and  such 
instruction  should  be  continued  as  a  necessary  part 
of  musical  instruction.  Each  pupil  in  a  Vocal 
Music  class  should  be  taught  to  sing  by  himself  as 
well  as  in  concert  with  others.  There  is  no  better 
reason  why  pupils  should  be  relieved  from  personal 
responsibility  in  reciting  a  lesson  in  Vocal  Music 
than  in  reciting  a  lesson  in  any  other  study. 

2.  THE  CULTURE  or  MUSICAL  TASTE. — By  musical 
taste  is  meant  the  power  by  which  we  perceive  and 
appreciate  what  is  beautiful  in  tone.  It  is  the  men 
tal  part  of  Music,  and  includes  both  an  intellectual 
and  an  emotional  element.  A  person  may  possess 
a  voice  capable  of  uttering  tones  in  all  the  varieties 
of  Pitch,  Time,  and  Force,  and  yet  be  a  very  un 
skilful  musician.  The  voice  is  merely  an  instru 
ment  used  to  express  in  tones,  the  thought  and  sen 
timent  which  have  their  birth  in  the  soul.  Skill  in 
Vocal  Music  requires  not  only  the  perception  and 


4:78  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

appreciation  of  the  beautiful  as  expressed  in  tones, 
but  also  as  expressed  in  words. 

The  teacher  of  Vocal  Music  must  give  culture  to 
the  musical  taste.  Every  individual  has  likes  and 
dislikes,  meets  with  some  objects  which  are  agree 
able  and  with  others  which  are  disagreeable,  notices 
what  he  conceives  to  be  beauties  and  deformities. 
The  power  of  discriminating  between  what  pleases 
and  what  displeases  is  taste  —  a  power  universally 
possessed  by  men.  Taste  differs  among  individuals 
and  among  nations.  Rude,  ignorant  people  have 
very  different  tastes  from  those  who  are  refined  and 
educated.  The  laws  of  taste  are  the  generalizations 
of  what  has  been  found  agreeable  to  such  persons  as 
by  nature  and  by  education  are  most  competent  to 
form  correct  judgments.  The  idea  of  the  beautiful 
is  a  projection  from  within,  and  not  an  induction 
from  without.  Upon  occasions  given,  we  express 
our  likes  and  dislikes ;  and  these,  when  expressed 
by  the  best  critics,  constitute  the  laws  of  taste. 

The  teacher  will  find  his  pupils  in  possession  of 
some  degree  of  taste ;  our  query  is  how  to  purity 
and  elevate  it  ? 

Taste  in  all  the  Fine  Arts  is  improved  by  furnish 
ing  fit  occasions  for  its  exercise.  In  abstract  Vocal 
Music,  these  occasions  may  be  found  at  every  step 
of  the  pupil's  progress.  All  true  Music  is  beautiful, 
from  the  simple  chord  to  that  complicated  contrast 
ing  and  blending  of  tones  which  characterizes  the 
compositions  of  the  masters  of  the  art.  In  concrete 
Vocal  Music,  these  occasions  may  be  found  in  the 
songs  they  sing.  These  should  be  rich  in  beautiful 
and  noble  sentiments.  Children  should  sing  of 


YOCAL    MUSIC.  479 

home,  of  country,  of  truth,  of  liberty,  of  lovti,  of 
Ileaven,  of  God.  The  songs  of  a  people  have  much 
to  do  with  their  character.  I  can  think  of  no  better 
way  of  filling  the  heart  of  a  child  with  high  and 
noble  aspirations  than  by  teaching  him  to  sing  beau 
tiful  songs  and  hymns. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  all  Music, 
whether  abstract  or  concrete,  must  be  adapted  to 
the  capacities  of  the  pupils  for  whom  it  is  intended, 
or  they  can  see  no  beauty  in  it.  Music  has  its  sim 
ple,  surface  beauties,  and  those  which  are  complex 
and  hidden  —  beauties  which  delight  the  unthinking 
fancy,  and  beauties  which  only  the  highly-cultured 
imagination,  inspired  by  genius,  can  appreciate. 
Between  the  tune  whistled  by  the  peasant  boy  to 
cheer  his  toil  while  he  works  in  the  fields,  or  sung 
by  his  sister  as  she  watches  for  his  return  to  the 
cottage,  and  the  divine  inspirations  of  a  Beethoven 
or  a  Mozart,  the  difference  is  almost  infinite.  Let 
the  teacher  first  open  the  way  for  the  little  stream 
of  love  for  the  beautiful  to  come  up  from  the  in 
fantile  heart,  and  then  lead  it  gently  on  until  it 
become  a  rivulet,  and,  at  last,  swell  into  a  river  as 
it  gushes  forth  from  the  bosom  of  manhood. 

3.  MUSICAL  EXECUTION.  —  Given,  a  well-cultured 
voice  and  good  musical  taste,  and  pupils  are  pre 
pared  to  compose,  arrange,  or  perform  musical 
compositions. 

Musical  execution,  witli  respect  to  Vocal  Music, 
consists  in  Composing  Music,  in  adapting  tunes  and 
words  to  each  other,  mid  in  singing. 

Composing  Music  is  a  work  of  high  art.    All  the 


480  1JNS1KUCT1OJN    IIS    THE    ARTS. 

varied  feelings  that  agitate  the  human  bosom  admit 
expression  in  tones.  It  is  thus  that  Music  is  the 
universal  language  of  the  heart.  Here  can  be 
applied  all  the  laws  that  give  beauty  to  Melody, 
Rhythm,  Dynamics,  and  Harmony  —  the  laws  that 
govern  the  relation  of  sentiment,  and  its  expression 
in  tones. 

To  adapt  tunes  to  words  requires  a  nice  apprecia 
tion  both  of  Poetry  and  Music.  In  all  serious 
Music,  there  must  be  a  correspondence  between  the 
sentiment  embodied  in  the  words,  and  the  sentiment 
expressed  in  the  Music.  In  comic  songs  alone  can 
unexpected  contrasts  be  appropriately  introduced: 
and,  then,  they  must  be  subjected  to  the  rules  that 
elsewhere  control  the  expression  of  the  witty  and 
the  humorous.  To  observe  these  correspondences 
and  create  these  contrasts,  requires  good  taste  arid 
great  skill. 

Singing  is  the  utterance  of  sentiment  in  tones. 
Prepared,  in  respect  to  voice  and  taste,  ready  with 
tunes  composed,  notated,  and  adapted  to  words, 
students  of  Music  can  enjoy  themselves  in  song, 
for  this  is  the  fruition  of  their  and  their  teacher's 
labors. 

IV.  The  Arts  in  General. 

The  Arts  in  the  sense  now  contemplated  embrace 
the  whole  product  of  man's  regulated  activity.  The 
Sciences  are  what  he  knows,  the  Arts  are  what  Le 
does.  Some  authors  have  limited  the  meaning  of 
Art  to  that  which  is  produced  without  physical  or 
social  restraint  —  which  springs  from  spontaneous 
impulses;  but  here  it  is  convenient  to  consider  as 


THE    ARTS    IN    GENERAL.  481 

works  of  Art  all  that  men  do,  whether  they  do  it 
from  necessity  and  duty,  or  with  the  design  of  realiz 
ing  in  a  concrete  form  the  ideals  of  their  Reason. 

Art  both  precedes  and  follows  Science  in  the 
order  of  time.  Says  Whewell,  "  In  all  cases  the 
arts  are  prior  to  the  related  sciences.  Art  is  the 
parent  and  not  the  progeny  of  science."  And 
McCosh,  "Art  has  in  general  preceded  science. 
There  were  bleaching,  and  dyeing,  and  tanning, 
and  artificers  in  copper  and  iron,  before  there  was 
chemistry  to  explain  the  process  used.  Men  made 
wino  before  there  was  any  theory  of  fermentation  ; 
and  glass  and  porcelain  were  manufactured  before 
the  nature  of  alkalies  and  earths  had  been  deter 
mined."  The  same  writer  states  numerous  other 
fac<s  to  the  same  effect. 

On  the  other  hand,  Mill  maintains  that  "Art  ne- 
ce?  jarily  presupposes  knowledge ;  art,  in  any  but 
its  infant  state  presupposes  scientific  knowledge." 
James  Harris  states  more  positively  that  "  If  there 
were  no  theorems  of  science  to  guide  the  operations 
of  art,  there  would  be  no  art ;  but  if  there  were  no 
operations  of  art,  there  might  still  be  theorems  of 
science.  Therefore  science  is  prior  to  art." 

Both  of  these  views  are  correct.  Art  in  its  in 
fancy  precedes  Science  properly  so  called.  Driven 
by  necessity  primitive  men  made  rude  efforts  to 
provide  themselves  with  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and 
other  conveniences  before  they  began  to  philoso 
phize.  True  they  acted  in  conformity  with  princi 
ples  capable  of  being  expressed  in  a  scientific  form, 
but  of  these  they  were  wholly  unconscious.  As 
society  advanced  towards  civilization,  and  the 

41 


482  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

Sciences  began  to  be  formed,  their  principles  were 
used  as  a  guide  to  Art,  and  finally  many  Arts  grew 
out  of  the  related  Sciences,  and  could  not  exist 
without  them.  Art  is  therefore  older  than  Science 
as  a  matter  of  fact  and  younger  as  a  matter  of  logic. 
In  all  enlightened  communities  Art  and  Science 
advance  together,  giving  each  other  mutual  aid 
Mill  in  referring  to  their  reciprocal  influence  re 
marks,  "  The  relation  in  which  rules  of  art  stand 
to  doctrines  of  science  may  be  thus  characterized : 
The  art  proposes  to  itself  an  end  to  be  attained, 
defines  the  end,  and  hands  it  over  to  the  science. 
The  science  receives  it,  considers  it  as  a  phenomenon 
or  effect  to  be  studied,  and  having  investigated  its 
causes  and  conditions,  sends  it  back  to  Art  with  a 
theorem  of  the  combinations  of  circumstances  by 
which  it  could  be  produced.  Art  then  examines 
these  combinations  and  circumstances,  and  accord 
ing  as  any  of  them  are  or  are  not  in  human  power, 
pronounces  the  end  attainable  or  not." 

From  what  has  been  stated  it  is  obvious  that  all 
the  Sciences  may  have  their  related  Arts.  There 
are  Arts  connected  with  each  of  the  great  classes 
of  knowledge  as  we  have  formed  them  —  Arts  con 
nected  with  Language,  the  Formal  Sciences,  the 
Empirical  Sciences,  the  Rational  Sciences,  and  the 
Historical  Sciences.  Methods  of  teaching  some  of 
these  have  been  referred  to  under  the  head  of  Ap 
plications  of  the  different  Sciences.  Of  others  no 
notice  need  be  taken  here ;  and  what  remains  to 
be  said  of  all  in  general  must  be  presented  i/i  a 
brief  space. 


THE   ARTS    IN    GENERAL.  483 

The  Arts  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
which  may  be  called  respectively,  the  Empirical 
Arts,  and  the  Rational  Arts.  An  Empirical  Art  is 
the  accomplishment  of  an  end  of  utility.  Such  ai? 
end  is  always  found  without  oneself,  and  is  a  labor. 
A  Rational  Art  is  the  realization  of  an  ideal  of 
perfection.  Such  an  end  is  always  found  within 
oneself,  and  is  a  delight.  The  first  class  of  Arts  is 
dependent  upon  the  faculties  of  the  Sense  and  the 
Understanding,  while  the  second  class  is  based  upon 
the  intuitions  of  the  Reason.  The  Empirical  Arts 
are  sometimes  called  the  Useful  Arts,  and  the  Ra 
tional  Arts,  the  Fine  or  Liberal  Arts;  but  the 
terms  here  applied  to  them  are  deemed  preferable. 

1.  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  EMPIRICAL  ARTS. 

The  Empirical  Arts  include  all  Arts  that  relate 
to  the  practical  affairs  of  life  as  Agriculture,  Manu 
factures,  Commerce,  Mining,  &c.  They  are  the 
Arts  by  which  we  obtain  food,  clothing,  houses  to 
live  in,  facilities  for  travelling,  and  all  the  ordinary 
comforts  of  society.  They  constitute  what  is  called 
business. 

In  discussing  the  methods  of  teaching  the  Empir 
ical  Arts,  it  will  be  convenient  as  well  as  logical  to 
epeak :  1,  of  their  End,  or  the  purpose  to  be  at 
tained  ;  2,  of  their  Means,  or  the  agencies  to  be 
employed ;  3,  of  their  Execution,  or  the  manner  of 
doing  the  work. 

1.  THEIR  END.— The  end  of  all  the  Empirical  Arts 
is  some  physical  or  moral  good  —  a  utility.  The 
farmer  proposes  to  produce  food ;  the  mechanic,  to 


484  INSTRUCTION   IN    THE    ARTS. 

construct  houses,  bridges,  mills,  machinery;  the 
merchant  to  collect  together  and  expose  for  sale 
various  commodities  which  conduce  to  the  comfort 
of  life;  the  physician,  to  cure  the  sick;  the  judge, 
to  secure  the  ends  of  justice  —  all  of  which  are 
utilities,  and  come  within  the  province  of  the  Arts 
now  under  consideration. 

The  Empirical  Arts,  grow  out  of  our  necessities. 
Man  must  earn  his  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow. 
He  must  labor  or  suffer  from  hunger,  the  elements, 
or  the  attacks  of  wild  animals.  He  must  conquer 
nature  or  be  crushed  out  of  existence.  Among  un 
civilized  tribes,  wants  are  comparatively  few  and 
easily  supplied,  and  consequently  the  Arts  are  sim 
ple ;  but  in  highly  enlightened  communities  wants 
become  very  numerous  and  complex,  and  the  result 
is  a  growth  of  multitudes  of  Arts.  All  of  them, 
however,  whatever  may  be  the  stage  of  civilization 
in  which  they  are  produced,  are  prompted  by  wrants 
real  or  supposed.  If  the  history  of  every  Empirical 
Art,  of  which  we  know  anything,  could  be  written, 
it  would  be  found  to  have  arisen  from  a  pressure  of 
circumstances.  Facts  appertaining  to  the  Arts  may 
have  been  observed  by  accident,  but  these  facts 
were  always  pressed  by  necessity  into  the  service  of 
the  Arts. 

Nor  is  it  unworthy  of  a  man  to  labor — to  engage 
in  any  business  that  will  promote  his  own  welfare 
or  that  of  his  fellow  men.  Our  farms,  and  shops, 
and  mills,  and  stores,  and  offices,  have  their  place  in 
the  social  economy.  They  provide  for  the  interests 
of  self,  and  the  interests  of  society.  The  great 
world-triffic  must  go  on.  Bnt  it  ought  to  be  said 


THE    ARTS    IN    GENEKAL.  485 

that  in  this  country  the  so-called  practical  absorbs 
over  much  attention.  Money-making  is  the  beset 
ting  sin  of  the  age.  Mammon  is  served  rather  than 
God.  The  public  cry  is,  "down  with  theories," 
"give  us  the  practical,  in  business,  in  books,  in 
teaching,  in  preaching."  We  worship  banks,  rail 
roads,  coal-mines,  steamships,  printing  presses,  and 
Parrott  cannon.  These  may  all  tend  to  personal  com 
fort  and  national  greatness ;  but  life  has  higher  ends. 
The  Bible  asks :  "  Is  not  the  life  more  than  meat, 
and  the  body  than  raiment?"  Education  is  com 
pelled  to  lower  its  standard  to  meet  the  pressing 
demand  for  the  practical.  The  branches  of  study 
most  popular  are  those  which  seem  best  calculated 
to  make  successful  business  men.  Agricultural 
Schools,  Mechanics'  Institutes  and  Polytechnic  Col 
leges  are  founded  and  flourish.  Every  city  boasts 
of  its  Mercantile  College  with  hundreds  of  students 
whose  highest  ambition  it  seems  to  be  to  fit  them 
selves  for  calculating  cargoes  of  dry-goods  or  for  bal- 
anci^.g  the  two  sides  of  a  ledger.  To  the  practical, 
in  i*  i  proper  place,  no  objection  can  be  made,  but 
that  place  is  a  subordinate  one  in  a  liberal  scheme  of 
ediv  ation.  God  never  intended  this  beautiful  world 
to  be  converted  into  a  great  shop  for  hucksters,  or 
that  His  temple  should  be  profaned  as  of  old  by  such 
as  would  make  our  "  Father's  house  a  house  of  mer 
chandise."  It  is  melancholy  to  reflect  that  there  are 
educational  theorists  who  estimate  as  of  greatest 
worth  that  knowledge  which  is  only  capable  of 
administering  to  the  material  interests  of  life,  and 
undervalue  that  which  is  calculated  to  subserve  the 
higher  interests  of  man — which  ennobles  him  hero 

o 

41* 


486  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE    ARTS. 

and  fits  him  for  the  world  to  come.  In  the  words 
of  Carlyle,  "  An  irreverent  knowledge  is  no  know 
ledge  ;  may  be  a  development  of  the  logical  orothei 
handicraft  faculty  inward  or  outward,  but  is  no  cul 
ture  of  the  soul  of  man." 

The  Empirical  Arts  have  ends  more  or  less  noble, 
and  the  first  step  a  student  must  take  in  acquiring 
such  an  Art  is  to  obtain  a  definite  idea  of  its  end. 
Confusion  here  will  vitiate  the  whole  process,  be 
cause  appropriate  means  of  accomplishing  an  end 
can  only  be  selected  and  fitly  applied  when  the  end 
itself  is  clearly  known.  Most  of  the  Empirical  Arts 
are  practiced  blindly,  it  is  for  the  true  teacher  of 
Buch  Arts  to  substitute  science  for  guess-work. 

2.  THEIR  MEANS. — With  its  end  plain  before  him 
the  student  of  an  Empirical  Art  will  next  need  to 
seek  the  means  of  attaining  it. 

Man  is  a  maker  by  instinct.  As  the  bee  and  the 
beaver  build,  so  does  he.  In  his  primitive  con 
dition,  he  feels  certain  wants  and  tries  to  supply 
them  by  an  unconscious  power  of  adapting  means 
to  ends. 

Somewhat  further  advanced  in  civilization,  he  is 
ready  to  take  advantage  of  what  others  have  done 
by  using  his  powers  of  imitation.  He  may  imitate 
nature,  or  he  may  imitate  the  works  of  other  men. 
His  first  imitations  are  those  of  natural  objects,  and 
these  in  turn  are  imitated.  The  largest  number  of 
persons  who  now  practice  the  Empirical  Arts  are 
still  imitators.  Such  persons  are  found  among  far 
mers,  mechanics,  merchants,  and  professional  men, 


THE   ARTS   IN    GENERAL.  487 

They  simply  do  what  they  see  others  do,  but  make 
little  attempt  to  comprehend  the  principles  which 
ought  to  guide  all  the  operations  of  Art.  They 
may  accomplish  the  end  aimed  at,  but  they  do  it 
mechanically. 

The  Empirical  Arts  are  all  based  on  scientific 
principles,  and  these  principles  furnish  the  means 
by  which  their  ends  may  be  surely  attained.  The 
farmer  proposes  to  increase  the  fertility  of  his  soil, 
Chemistry  points  to  the  means  ;  the  engineer  pro 
poses  to  locate  a  railroad  or  navigate  a  ship,  Mathe 
matics  aids  him  in  the  work  ;  the  physician  proposes 
to  amputate  a  diseased  limb,  Anatomy  must  guide 
the  operation ;  and  so  throughout  the  long  category. 
Farmers  may  fertilize  their  fields  as  they  see  others 
do  it,  engineers  may  construct  railroads  and  navi 
gate  ships  by  rules  which  they  do  not  understand, 
physicians  may  amputate  diseased  limbs  by  guess; 
but  this  would  be  false  Art,  quackery,  and,  when  the 
interests  of  others  are  concerned,  criminal  quackery. 
What  Blackstone  says  of  one  preparing  for  the 
practice  of  the  legal  profession,  is  true  of  one  pre 
paring  for  practice  of  any  kind.  "If  practice  be 
the  whole  he  is  taught,  practice  must  also  be  the 
whole  he  will  ever  know  ;  if  he  be  un instructed  in 
the  elements  and  first  principles  upon  which  the 
rule  of  practice  is  founded,  the  least  variation  from, 
established  precedents  will  totally  distract  and  be 
wilder  him." 

Each  particular  Art  has  for  a  basis  a  body  of  rules 
or  principles  derived  from  science.  They  sometimes 
come  from  one  science  and  sometimes  from  several 


488  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE    ARTS. 

sciences.  Surveying  is  an  Art  with  a  simple  basis 
of  Mathematics.  Teaching  is  an  Art  with  a  com 
plex  basis,  composed  of  principles  derived  from  all 
the  sciences  relating  both  to  matter  and  mind. 
"Without  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  underlying 
an  Art,  the  Art  itself  cannot  be  understood.  Some 
skill,  it  is  granted,  may  be  attained  by  an  instinctive 
adaptation  of  means  to  ends,  and  by  imitation,  but 
such  skill  is  mechanical,  not  artistic. 

If  what  is  above  said  is  true,  the  teacher  of  Art 
must  borrow  from  science  the  means  of  instruction 
in  the  Arts ;  and  as  methods  of  teaching  the  several 
sciences  have  been  discussed,  nothing  further  con 
cerning  them  in  this  connection  is  needed. 

3.  THEIR  MODE  OP  EXECUTION. — Facts  show  that 
there  is  a  natural  difference  among  men  in  their 
ability  to  do  particular  kinds  of  work.  All  men 
would  not  make  equally  good  mechanics,  equally 
enterprising  merchants,  equally  skilful  physicians. 
For  each  man  there  is  an  appropriate  sphere — some 
thing  he  can  do  better  than  anything  else,  if  not 
better  than  anybody  else.  Of  these  differences 
education  must  take  account. 

Ingenuity  in  making  things  can  be  cultivated  in 
childhood.  Blocks  can  be  used  in  building  little 
houses,  towers,  bridges,  &c.  Very  beautiful  models 
of  objects  can  be  made  of  terra  cotta.  A  great 
variety  of  things  can  be  cut  from  pasteboard  and 
paper.  Suitable  tools  with  suitable  material  to  worK 
upon  may  be  given  to  children. 

Imitation  is  a  faculty  largely  used  in  executing 


THE   ARTS    IN    GENERAL. 

all  works  of  Art.  Exclusive  dependance  ought  not 
to  be  placed  upon  it,  but,  working  side  by  side  with 
the  understanding,  it  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  in  attain 
ing  success  in  Art.  The  child  should  have  models 
in  learning  to  draw,  write,  or  sing,  and  so  in  all 
other  Arts.  The  best  model,  however,  is  a  skilful 
workman.  Pupils  who  see  work  well  done  will  be 
apt  to  do  it  well ;  but  if  the  teacher  be  a  bungle^ 
his  pupils  will  not  be  likely  to  excel  him. 

The  maxim,  "Practice  makes  perfect,"  was  de 
signed  to  apply  to  the  execution  of  works  of  Art. 
There  may  be  &  well-defined  end  before  the  mind's 
eye,  the  scientific  principles  involved  in  the  accom 
plishment  of  it  may  be  understood,  his  powers  of 
imitation  may  be  active,  and  still,  unless  a  pupil 
enjoy  ample  opportunity  of  practice,  he  will  most 
likely  be  wanting  in  skill.  Skill  in  Art  is  attained 
by  a  training  rather  than  a  teaching  process.  Pupils 
in  our  schools  are  probably  not  allowed  to  do  enough. 
Sufficient  practice  is  denied  them.  The  argument 
seems  strong  in  favor  of  combining  work  and  study. 
Knowledge  applied  will  be  remembered.  It  is  by 
doing  that  character  is  formed.  Life  makes  the  man, 
not  study. 

2.   INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  RATIONAL  ARTS. 

The  Rational  Arts  are  the  free  productions  of  our 
ideals  of  perfection.  A  generalization  of  these 
ideals  of  perfection  gives  us  the  True,  the  Beautiful, 
and  the  G-ood  ;  and  the  Rational  Arts  admit,  doubt 
less,  a  corresponding  three-fold  division.  He  who 


490  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

constructs  a  system  of  Philosophy  or  of  Ethics  foi 
the  purpose  of  realizing  his  ideas  of  truth  or  good- 
DOSS,  is  not  less  an  Artist  than  one  who  bodies  forth 
his  ideas  of  beauty  on  canvas,  or  in  marble.  Either 
may  work  for  an  end  of  utility,  but  in  that  case  the 
production  belongs  to  the  Empirical,  and  not  to  the 
Rational  Arts. 

In  what  is  to  be  said,  here,  however,  we  shall 
mainly  keep  before  our  mind's  eye  the  Arts  which 
are  expressions  of  the  beautiful,  usually  called 
Fine  Arts  —  Gardening,  Architecture,  Sculpture, 
Painting,  Music,  and  Poetry;  not  forgetting  that 
everything  may  be  made,  in  the  language  of  another, 
"  The  basis  of  an  exquisite  Art,  for  Art  being  uni 
versal  disdains  no  field  of  ministration  however 
humble,  but  avouches  its  redeeming  virtue  most 
in  descending  to  what  is  lowly,  and  exalting  that 
which  is  despised.  It  sheds  a  divine  splendor  over 
the  meanest  things,  and  glorifies  the  infinite  riches 
of  its  resources  in  the  exact  ratio  of  the  intrinsic 
poverty  of  its  materials." 

What  we  have  to  say  concerning  methods  ol 
teaching  the  Rational  Arts  may  be  said  under  heads 
similar  to  those  adopted  in  treating  of  the  Empir 
ical  Arts:  1,  End;  2,  Means ;  3,  Execution. 

1.  THEIR  END.  —  The  end  of  the  Rational  Arts  is 
the  expression  of  ideals  of  perfection  in  concrete 
forms  —  is  the  production  of  things  of  beauty. 

To  those  who  use  only  the  senses  which  acquaint 
them  with  material  objects,  to  those  who  so  mix  up 
in  the  world's  affairs  that  their  hearts  become  dead 


THE   ARTS    IN    GENERAL.  491 

to  all  that  is  beautiful,  an  end  that  cannot  he  meas 
ured  by  some  practical  standard  is  counted  as  of 
little  worth.  But  as  we  rise  above  mere  animal 
wants  and  are  freed  from  their  pressure,  our  higher 
nature  begins  to  seek  expression  in  forms  that  fitly 
embody  its  ideals  of  perfection.  It  is  thus  Angels 
act.  It  is  thus  God  creates.  The  soul  has  interests 
as  well  as  the  body,  and  the  educator  ought  not  to 
overlook  them. 

No  one  can  be  an  Artist  who  has  not  born  within 
him  an  ideal  of  beauty.  It  is  this  ideal  which  he 
paints  on  canvas,  chisels  out  of  marble,  expresses 
in  tones,  or  writes  in  measured  words.  It  is  his 
model.  It  is  his  light.  It  is  what  he  struggles  to 
body  forth.  Every  work  of  Art  is  a  new  birth. 
Nothing  can  emanate  from  emptiness.  Up  from 
the  depths  of  the  soul  comes  this  image,  and  we 
fitly  call  its  coming  inspiration,  and  can  say  no  more. 

2.  THEIR  MEANS.  —  We  seek  now  the  means  of 
expressing  the  ideals  of  perfection  born  in  the  soul. 

There  must  be  a  suitable  body.  It  may  be  form, 
color,  tone,  word,  but  there  can  be  no  Art  without 
a  body.  Without  it,  the  image  might  exist  in  the 
mind,  but  it  could  not  be  expressed.  Nor  is  the 
relation  between  the  ideal  and  the  body  used  to  ex 
press  it  a  matter  of  indifference.  An  Artist  may 
exhibit  exquisite  taste  in  the  selection  of  his  forms, 
his  colors,  his  tones,  his  words. 

There  must  be  appropriate  accessories.  The 
central  thought  of  a  master  of  Art  cannot  be  pene 
trated  at  a  glance.  It  is  a  study,  and  can  only  be 


4:92  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   ARTS. 

approached  by  steps.  There  must  be  an  adjustment 
of  surrounding  details  each  co-operating  to  heighten 
the  general  effect,  or  to  make  more  impressive  the 
main  design. 

There  must  be  a  knowledge  of  scientific  principles. 
An  Artist  cannot  dispense  with  certain  principles 
of  the  Rational  Sciences,  for  from  this  source  he 
must  draw  all  his  knowledge  concerning  the  pure 
ideas  under  whose  inspiration  he  works  and  the 
criteria  by  which  he  judges  in  matters  of  taste. 
All  the  rules  of  Art  and  canons  of  criticism  are 
the  deductions  of  Rational  Science.  Artists  are 
aided,  too,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  Empirical  Sci 
ences.  The  Architect  needs  to  know  the  strength 
of  materials  and  the  laws  of  mechanics ;  the  Sculp 
tor  should  understand  Anatomy ;  the  Painter,  the 
properties  of  pigments  and  the  effects  of  light  and 
shade  ;  and  the  Musician  the  laws  of  Harmony. 

There  must  be  genius.  Rules  of  Art  do  not 
make  Artists.  By  long  practice,  men  can  become 
mechanics,  imitators ;  but  Art  requires  originality, 
invention,  the  poet's  fire,  genius. 

3.  THEIR  MODE  OF  EXECUTION. — Young  Artists 
usually  seek  the  studio  or  the  shop  of  some  famous 
master  of  the  Art  they  wish  to  acquire,  that  they 
may  study  his  style  and  imitate  his  models.  For 
the  same  purpose  they  visit  collections  of  pictures, 
galleries  of  statues,  concerts  and  rehearsals,  and 
Btudy  poems  and  compositions.  This  is  all  very 
well,  but  it  can  never  supply  the  want  of  genius  or 
of  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  nature.  Per- 


THE    ARTS    IN    GENERAL  493 

haps,  something  has  been  lost  to  Art  by  the  practice 
of  imitating  the  style  of  the  masters.  All  men  can 
work  in  themselves  better  than  out  of  themselves. 
No  Artist  can  execute  like  another.  All  attempts 
to  do  it  will  prove  failures.  Each  must  be  himself 
or  nothing.  A  work  of  Art  is  a  growth,  the  vital 
force  of  which  exists  in  the  Artist's  mind,  and  ex 
traneous  influences  may  nourish  but  must  not  con 
strain  it. 

It  is  earnestly  maintained  by  some  that  all  Art  is 
an  imitation  of  nature  —  that  it  is  by  the  study  of 
nature  alone  that  the  true  Artist  can  find  instruction. 
Ruskin  gives  the  following  advice  to  young  Artists : 
"They  should  go  to  nature  in  all  singleness  of 
heart,  and  walk  with  her  laboriously  and  trustingly, 
having  no  other  thought  but  how  best  to  penetrate 
her  meaning;  rejecting  nothing,  selecting  nothing, 
and  scorning  nothing."  Doubtless  all  the  elements 
of  beauty  are  found  expressed  in  the  works  of 
nature,  and  the  first  part  of  Ruskin's  sentiment  is 
worthy  of  acceptation,  that  young  Artists  "  should 
go  to  nature  in  all  singleness  of  heart,  and  walk 
with  her  laboriously  and  trustingly."  But  Art  is 
not  simply  an  imitation  of  nature.  The  grapes 
painted  by  Zeuxis  that  the  birds  came  and  pecked  at, 
were  a  work  of  high  Art,  but  there  is  a  higher. 
The  Artist  has  an  ideal  of  beauty  in  his  own  mind, 
the  presence  of  beautiful  objects  is  necessary  for  its 
manifestation,  but  when  manifested  it  becomes  a 
criterion  by  which  nature  herself  can  be  criticised. 
The  capacity  of  conceiving  the  beautiful  exists  in 
every  mind;  it  needs  only  that  a  spark  from  the 

42 


494:  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

outer  world  should  light  it  up,  and  all  things  be 
come  illuminated  in  its  blaze.  Cousin  quotes  Plato 
as  follows :  "  The  artist,  who,  with  eye  fixed  upon 
the  immutable  being,  and  using  such  a  model,  repro 
duces  its  idea  and  its  excellence,  cannot  fail  to 
produce  a  whole  whose  beauty  is  complete,  whilst 
he  who  fixes  his  eye  upon  what  is  transitory,  with 
this  perishable  model  will  make  nothing  beautiful." 
And  Cicero,  to  the  same  effect :  "  Phidias,  that  great 
artist,  when  he  made  the  form  of  Jupiter  or  Minerva, 
did  not  contemplate  a  model  a  resemblance  of 
which  he  would  express ;  but  in  the  depth  of  his 
soul  resided  a  perfect  type  of  beauty,  upon  which 
he  fixed  his  look,  which  guided  his  hand  and  his 
art."  God  gave  man  Reason  ;  and  the  word  of  the 
Reason  becomes  the  flesh  of  Art,  the  latter  only 
finds  its  nourishment  on  earth,  the  former  looks  to 
Heaven  for  its  inspiration. 

Success  in  Art  is  not  likely  to  be  reached  without 
much  practice  in  efforts  to  express  the  ideal.  A 
divine  image  may  struggle  for  utterance  in  the  soul, 
nature  raay  be  full  of  forms,  colors,  sounds,  motions, 
symbols  suited  as  a  body  to  its  expression,  but  to 
free  the  one  by  finding  the  other  generally  requires 
practice  and  patience.  The  Sculptor  may  see  his 
ideal  in  the  rough  block  of  marble  before  him,  but 
how  many  the  trials,  how  great  the  toil,  before  the 
breath  of  beauty  is  breathed  into  the  dead  stone. 
The  Painter  may  see  his  ideal  on  the  dull  canvas, 
but  tired  hand  and  aching  head  are  his  before  that 
canvas  will  speak  like  a  voice  from  Heaven  to  listen 
ing  worshippers.  Fairer  ideals  dance  before  the 


THE   ARTS    IN    GENERAL.  495 

Poet's  imagination  than  he  has  ever  been  aole  to 
clothe  in  the  drapery  of  words,  and  richer  sympho 
nies  swell  in  the  ear  of  the  Musician  than  were  ever 
sung  save  upon  the  harps  of  angels.  From  this 
cause,  a  true  Artist  is  seldom  satisfied  with  his  pro 
ductions.  He  feels  capable  of  more  than  he  haa 
accomplished.  More  perfect  ideals  dazzle  him  with 
their  beauty,  and  seem  to  challenge  his  powers  of 
expression.  Fired  with  poetic  frenzy,  he  works  and 
works  on,  with  chisel,  with  pencil,  with  pen,  but  to 
find  repeated,  at  the  end  of  every  struggle,  the  same 
longing  to  touch  that  higher  beauty  which  still  lies 
beyond  his  reach. 

It  may  be  in  place  to  say  here,  that  all  true  Art  is 
pure  and  truthful.  Out  of  the  idea  of  the  beautiful 
nothing  unchaste  or  lalse  cor'r*  come,  for  otherwise 
the  child  would  destroy  the  parent.  All  the  Arts 
have  been  turned  to  base  uses,  as  sin  dragged  down 
the  angels  from  Heaven,  but  their  mission  is  to 
promote  virtue  among  men.  From  a  love  of  the 
beautiful  to  a  love  of  the  good  there  is  but  a  single 
step. 

In  the  highest  sense,  Art  is  universal  in  its  end. 
It  aims  to  dignify  all  that  is  low,  to  beautify  all  that  is 
deformed,  to  make  all  labor  a  delight,  to  lift  up  the 
world  from  sin  and  ignorance  to  holiness  and  light. 
Says  Ruskin  :  "  Remember  that  it  is  not  so  much 
in  buying  pictures,  as  in  being  pictures  that  you  en 
courage  a  noble  school.  The  best  patronage  of  art 
is  not  that  which  seeks  for  the  pleasures  of  senti 
ment  in  a  vague  ideality,  nor  for  beauty  of  form  in 
a  marble  imas^e ;  but  that  which  educates  your  ehil- 


496  INSTRUCTION    IN    THE   ARTS. 

dren  into  living  heroes,  and  binds  down  the  flights 
and  fondness  of  the  heart  into  practical  duty  and 
faithful  devotion." 

The  highest  of  all  Arts  is  the  Art  of  living  well. 
Beyond  the  beauty  of  Sculpture,  or  Painting,  or 
Music,  or  Poetry,  is  the  beauty  of  a  well-spent  life. 
Here  all  can  be  Artists.  Every  man  can  be  a  hero. 
Obedience  to  the  command,  "  Be  ye  perfect  even  as 
your  Father  in  Heaven  is  perfect,"  would  ally  man 
to  God,  and  make  earth  a  Paradise. 


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VALUABLE  EDUCATIONAL  WORKS 


FOR 


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Selected  from  Messrs.  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  Co.'s  Catalogue,  which 
comprises  nearly  Two  Thousand  Works  in  all  branches  of  Literature. 
Catalogues  furnished  on  application.  Liberal  terms  "will  be  made 
for  Introduction. 

Haldemaris   Outlines  of  Etymology.     By  S.  S. 

Ilaldeman,  A.M.,  author  of  "Analytical  Orthography,"  "Ele 
ments  of  Latin  Pronunciation,"  etc.  I2mo.  Fine  cloth.  90 
cents. 


"  This  is  a  most  scholarly  presenta 
tion  of  the  science  of  etymology,  .  .  . 
to  which  is  added  an  appendix  of  in 
estimable  value  to  the  student  of  lan 
guage.  .  .  .  It  is  a  marvel  of  con 
ciseness." — New  England  Journal  of 
Education,  July  5,  1877. 

'There  is,  probably,  no  man  living 
who  has  studied  and  analyzed  the  Eng 


lish  language  so  thoroughly  and  so  suc 
cessfully  as  this  distinguished  savant  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  this  little  treatise  is 
the  latest  fruit  of  his  ripe  scholarship 
and  patient  research.  No  newspaper 
notice  can  do  justice  to  the  work,  for  it 
cannot  bedescribed,  and  must  bestudied 
to  be  appreciated."  —  Philadelphia 
Evening  Bulletin. 


Walker  s    Science  of    Wealth.     A  Manual  of 

Political  Economy,  embracing  the  Laws  of  Trade,  Currency, 
and  Finance.  Condensed  and  Arranged  expressly  for  Use  a»  a 
Text-book.  By  AMASA  WALKKR,  LL.D.,  late  Lecturer  on 
Public  Economy,  Amherst  College.  Student's  edition.  I2mo. 
Extra  cloth.  §1.50. 

"  I  have,  during  the  past  year,  made 
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Wealth"  in  the  new  and  condensed  form 
he  has  given  it,  in  giving  instruction  to 
the  senior  class  in  Political  Economy, 
and  have  found  the  book  better  adapted 
than  any  other  with  which  I  am  ac 
quainted  for  use  in  a  college  class-room. 

Berkeley  s  Principles  of  Human  Knoivledge.    A 

Treatise  concerning  the  Principles  of  Human  Knowledge.  By 
GEORGE  BERKELEY,  D.D.,  formerly  Bishop  of  Cloyne.  With 
Prolegomena,  and  with  Illustrations  and  Annotations,  Select, 
Translated,  and  Original.  By  CHARLES  P.  KRAUTH,  D.D., 
Norton  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  and  Church  Polity  in 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary  ;  Professor  oj 
Intellectual  and  Aloral  Philosophy,  and  Vice-Prcn>ost  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  8vo.  Extra  cloth.  $3.00. 


It  is  clear, compact, and  ample  in  its  illus 
trations." —  PROP.  JULES  H.  SEKLYK, 
Atnherst  College,  filassachusetts. 

"  It  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  work 
on  this  subject." — W.  T.  HAKKIS, 
Superintendent  of  Schools,  Si.  Louis, 
Missouri. 


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of  Edinburgh,  says  of  "  Berkeley's 
Principles:"  "It  would  be  difficult  to 
name  a  book  in  ancient  or  modern  phi 
losophy  which  contains  more  fervid  and 


ingenious  reasoning  than  is  here  em 
ployed  to  meet  supposed  objections,  01 
to  unfold  possible  applications  to  relig 
ion  and  science." 


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gational  Quarterly. 

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Rhetoric.     Abridged, 


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on  the  Principles  of  Man's  Nature  as  Addressed  by  Art ;  together 
with  a  Historic  Survey  of  the  Methods  of  Art  Execution  in 
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sion  of  every  lover  of  the  beautiful,  and 
the  abridgment  deserves  to  be  intro 
duced  into  all  our  high  schools,  and 
made  a  part  of  common  education." — 
North  American. 


"  Art  criticism,  boiled  down  into 
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is  the  function  of  Dr.  G.  \V.  Samson, 
President  of  Columbia  College,  Wash 
ington  . " — Philadelphia  Bulletin. 

"This  work  should  be  in  the  posses- 


Malcom  s  Butler's  Analogy.      The  Analogy  oj 

Religion  to  the  Constitution  and  Course  of  Nature.  To  which 
are  added  Two  Brief  Dissertations.  I.  On  Personal  Identity. 
II.  On  the  Nature  of  Virtue.  By  JOSEPH  BUTLER,  D.C.L.  With 
Introduction,  Notes,  Conspectus,  and  ample  Index.  Prepared 
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viz.,  that  he  had  found  none  satisfactory 
as  a  text-book.  .  .  .  His  Introduc 
tion  is  valuable,  but  his  admirable  Con 
spectus,  of  nearly  fifty  pages  of  fine 


type,  gives  a  key  to  the  work  which 
will  make  the  study  of  Butler  a  new 
kind  of  business.  We  have  been  sur- 


make   the  study  of  Butler  a  new 
of  business. 
prised  and  delighted  with  this  new  aid 


afforded  by  President  Malcom.  In  our 
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book  used  by  all  intelligent  instructors 
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ing  Butler  by  the  difficulties  both  of  the 
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ities  Dr.  M.  has  afforded." — Southern 
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"  Sanford's  Arithmetics  are  superior  to  any  that  I  have  seen  in  the  fulness  of  the 
examples,  the  clearness  and  simplicity  of  the  analyses,  and  the  accuracy  of  the 
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"  It  is  contrary  to  my  practice  to  write  testimonials  or  recommendations,  but 
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"  I  think  they  [Sanford's  Arithmetics]  are  the  best  books  on  the  subject  ever 
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LEMPRiERE'3  CLASSICAL  DICTIONARY. 

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tions  and  additional  matter  by  the  American  editor.  8vo. 
Sheep.  $2.25.* 

The  object  of  the  compiler  has  been  to  produce  a  work  which  young  GreeV 
scholars  could  use  with  ease  and  advantage  to  themselves,  but  sufficiently  full  to 
be  equally  serviceable  as  they  advanced. 

PICKERING'S  GREEK  LEXICON. 

A  Comprehensive  Lexicon  of  the  Greek  Language,  adapted  to  the 
Use  of  Colleges  and  Schools  of  the  United  States.  By  JOHN 
PICKERING,  LL.D.  New  Edition,  revised  and  corrected.  Large 
8vo.  Sheep.  $5.50.* 

This  work  contains  all  the  words  in  the  Greek  language,  with  their  correct  inter 
pretation  into  English,  and  their  different  shades  of  meaning  carefully  distinguished 
and  illustrated  by  citations  from  standard  authors. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  6-   CO. 

CHAUVENET'S 

SERIES  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


CHAUVENET'S  GEOMETRY. 

A  Treatise  on  Elementary  Geometry,  with  Appendices  containing 
a  copious  Collection  of  Exercises  for  the  Student  and  an  Intro 
duction  to  Modern  Geometry.  By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  Professor 
of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in  Washington  University,  St. 
Louis.  Crown  8vo.  Cloth.  $1.7$. 

"  I  am  glad  to  see  at  last  an  American  text-book  on  this  subject  which  is  not 
from  seventy-five  to  two  thousand  years  behind  the  time,  and  which,  without 
casting  away  what  is  good  in  the  old,  does  not  totally  exclude  the  brilliant  geo 
metrical  discoveries  of  the  present  century.  I  shall  recommend  its  adoption  as  a 
text-book  in  this  University." — PROF.  J.  W.  SAFFORD,  Director  of  the  Dear- 
born  Observatory,  Chicago,  III. 

"At  a  late  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Public  Schools  in  this  city,  Chauvenet's  Ele 
mentary  Geometry  was  adopted  as  a  regular  text-book  in  our  High  School  course. 
Written  by  one  who  is  so  thoroughly  a  master,  it  everywhere  in  its  details  indicates 
in  a  suggestive  form  their  bearings  on  the  ultimate  questions  of  Analysis.  In 
publishing  a  work  of  the  high  character  that  the  Geometry  unquestionably  bears, 
you  have  laid  under  obligation  to  your  firm  the  friends  of  mathematical  studies 
throughout  the  land."— WM.  T.  HARRIS,  ESQ.,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools. 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

CHAUVENET'S  PLANE  AND  SPHERICAL  TRIGONOMETRY. 

By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  Prof,  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in 
Washington  University -,  6V.  Louis.  New  and  Revised  Edition. 
8vo.  Cloth.  $1.60. 

CHAUVENET'S  METHOD  OF  LEAST  SQUARES. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Least  Squares;  or,  The  Application  of 
the  Theory  of  Probabilities  in  the  Combination  of  Observations. 
From  the  author's  Manual  of  Spherical  and  Practical  Astronomy. 
By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  Frof.  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in 
Washington  University,  St.  Louis.  8vo.  Cloth.  $1.60. 

CHAUVENET'S  ASTRONOMY. 

A  Manual  of  Spherical  and  Practical  Astronomy.  Embracing  the 
general  problems  of  Spherical  Astronomy,  its  special  applications 
to  Nautical  Astronomy,  and  the  Theory  and  Use  of  Fixed  and 
Portable  Astronomical  Instruments.  With  an  Appendix  on  the 
Method  of  Least  Squares.  Amply  Illustrated  with  Engravings 
on  Wood  and  Steel.  By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  Prof,  of  Mathe 
matics  and  Astronomy  in  Washington  University,  S(.  Louis. 
(University  edition.}  2  vols.  Medium  8vo.  Cloth.  $7.00. 


PUBLICATIONS   OF  J.  B.  LIPPIKCOTT  &•    CO. 

GET  THE  STANDARD. 

"  It  oiif/ltt  to  It"  in  evert/  T^ihrary,  also  in  every  Academy  and 
every  School."— lloy.  CHARLES  SUMNUI. 

WORCESTER'S 

QUAETO  DICTIONARY. 

A    large,    handsome   volume    of    1854   pages,   containing 
considerably  more   than   100,000  Words   in  its 
Vocaoulary,  with  the  correct  Pronuncia 
tion,  Definition,  and  Etymology. 

Fully  Illustrated,      Library  Sheep.      $10.00. 

WITH  DENISON'S  PATENT 

READY    REFERENCE    INDEX,   $1.00   ADDITIONAL. 
"WORCESTER" 

is  now  regarded  as  the  standard  authority,  and  is  so  recommended  by 
BRYANT,  LONGFELLOW,  WHITTIER,  SUMNEK,  HOLMES,  IRVING,  WINTHROP,  AUASSIZ, 
MXRSH,  HENRY,  EVERKTP,  MVNV,  QITINOY,  FELTON,  HILLARD,  STEPHENS,  and  the 
majority  of  our  most  distinguished  scholars,  and  is,  besides,  recognized  as  author 
ity  by  the  Departments  of  our  National  Government. 

THE  COMPLETE   SERIES   OF 

WORCESTER'S  DICTIONARIES. 

Quarto  Dictionary.    Illustrated.    Library  Sheep.    $10.00. 
Octavo  (Universal  and  Critical)  Dictionary.  8vo.  Library  Sheep.  $4.25. 
Academic  Dictionary.     Illustrated.    Crown  8vo.     Half  roan.    $1.90. 
Comprehensive  Dictionary.    Illustrated.    12mo.    Half  roan.    $1.75. 
School  (Elementary)  Dictionary.    I2mo.    Half  roan.    $1.00. 
Primary  Dictionary.    Illustrated.    IGmo.    Half  roan.    GO  cents. 
Pocket    Dictionary.     Illustrated.     2tmo.     Cloth,  63  cents;    Koan,  flexible, 
85  cents  ;  Itoan,  tucks,  gilt  edges,  $1.00. 

Many  special  aids  to  students,  in  addition  to  a  very  full  pronouncing  and 
defining  vocabulary,  make  the  above-named  books,  in  the  opinion  of  our  most 
distinguished  educators,  the  most  complete  as  well  as  by  far  the  cheapest  Diction 
aries  of  our  language. 

"It  follows  from  this  with  unerring  accuracy  that  Worcester's  Dictionary,  being 
preferred  over  all  ot  lers  by  scholars  and  mun  of  letters,  should  lie  used  by  the  youth 
of  the  country  and  adopted  in  the  common  schools." — New  York  Evening  Post. 

"J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.  are  most  fortunate  in  having  secured  the  plates,  even 
though  at  gn-at  expense,  of  Worcester's  Dictionaries.  The  best  Englisli  writers 
and  the  most  particular  American  writers  use  Worcester  as  their  authority.  It  is 
almost  incredible  the  labor  represented  in  Worcester's  unabridged." — New  York 
Herald. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO. 

BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS. 


i. 

in    nr  iiinTminTimi 

i 


mmm  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

OR, 

That  Part  of  the  Philosophy  of  Education  which  Treats  of 

the  Nature  of  the  Several  Branches  of  Knowledge 

and   the    Method   of  Teaching   Them. 

By  J.  P.  WICKERSHAM,  A.M., 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania. 
12mo.     Cloth.     $1.75. 


II. 


A  Treatise  on  the  Preparation,  Organization,  Employments, 
Government,  and  Authorities  of  Schools. 

By  J.  P.  WICKERSHAM,  A.M., 

State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Pennsylvania. 
12mo.     Cloth.     $  l.SO. 


SPECIAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 

I.  These  works  are  a  philosophical  exposition  of  that  part  of  edu 
cation  of  which  they  treat.     Every  division  will  be  found  in  its  proper 
place,  and  good  reasons  are  always  given  for  its  statements. 

II.  They  are  practical.     Every  teacher  can  make  an  application 
of  their  principles.     They  are  especially  valuable  as  guides  to  young 
teachers. 

III.  Their  style  is  clear  and  pointed.     No  rambling  discussions, 
loose   narratives,  or  nonsensical  stories  will  be  found  within  their 
pages.     They  claim  rank  with  the  more  sober  and  solid  treatises 
which  form  the  standard  works  on  law  and  medicine. 

IV.  They  are   exhaustive.     Matter  scattered  through   dozens  of 
volumes  on  teaching  is  brought  together  and  condensed  in  these,  and 
nothing  of  importance  appertaining  to  the  subject  is  omitted. 

V.  They  are  now  used  as  text-books  with  marked  success  in  a 
number  of  State  Normal  Schools,  Private  Normal  Schools,  Teachers' 
Institutes  and  Associations. 

VI.  They  contain   matter  which   every  parent  and   every  school 
officer  as  well  as  every  teacher  should  be  acquainted  with. 


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